Communications Chapter 1 Homework Tell Them How Proceed Before Distributing The

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Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One

craft a good specific purpose, I might construct a multiple-choice item that requires them to select

the best specific purpose statement out of a series of alternatives. This would get at whether they

can apply what they know. For an even better assessment, I might construct a short-answer item

Once you have the inventory, you can then decide what type of test item seems most suitable

for each entry on your list, contemplating each in terms of what you should demand.

(1) Know: Will they be best served by simply being able to recall something?

(2) Comprehend: Should they be able to identify? summarize? paraphrase? translate?

(3) Apply: Should they be able to tackle a new situation, i.e., solve a new problem?

The “best” items

Danette Johnson and Kaleigh Mrowka (2010) have found that the best items for learning/growth/

mastery are those that “require linking concepts to one’s own experiences, comparing and

contrasting, and justifying conclusions” (p. 118). They explain that “such cognitive linkages are

likely to stimulate memory, which can facilitate performance on later assignments where concepts

Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One

Exam items: Guidelines for construction

As explained above, a test is an instrument that makes specific cognitive demands about certain

concepts. In order to gauge and simultaneously reinforce learning, each item must be crafted

carefully. Let’s explore advice for constructing three popular types of items: short-answer, essay,

and multiple-choice. For crafting other types of items, consult McKeachie (1999).

Short-answer

Short-answer items are especially good for demanding that students comprehend or apply

something. If you demand comprehension, for example, you might ask them to provide an

Essay items

Essay items, as McKeachie (1999) observes, can offer tremendous educational value. You can make high-

level demands with an essay, such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. And in addition to what students

might gain from penning a response, they can benefit from your comments about what they’ve written.

Essays also can reinforce the importance of clarity and conciseness and test students’ abilities along

those lines. In keeping with what I’ve learned about composition, particularly the pedagogical soundness

of “shorter can be better,” I often have students discuss something in a short essay. I emphasize that they

should structure their response using good expository form, which means stating something and backing

it up. I also instruct them to confine their answer to one or two developmental paragraphs. For each

Topic sentence of paragraph one:

“Pictures can work well to encourage emotional involvement.”

Topic sentence of paragraph two:

Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One

You could also sketch out the principal elements that should be included in the response

Multiple-choice items

These items can test at any level, but instructors usually use these items for demanding/measuring

knowledge, comprehension, and application. Each item consists of a stem, a correct response, and a few

incorrect responses (which are often referred to as “foils”).

To construct quality items, observe the following guidelines (in addition to those entered above

regarding coverage and cognitive demands for the exam):

1) Get an early start

Avoid trying to construct an exam the night before the big event. Not only will you need

enough time to produce all of the copies needed, you’ll need quite a bit of time to write

quality items. (One good item can take 20 minutes or so!) As with anything written, you’ll

2) Begin with the stem. Draft the stem as follows:

a. Present a problem in the form of a question or an incomplete statement.

3) Draft the options (i.e., the correct response and incorrect responses)

a. Draft the correct response first, and rework it until it is straightforward and concise.

b. Foils “must be wrong, yet be plausible enough to attract the attention of students who do

not know the material as well as they should” (Clegg & Cahin, 1986, p. 3). Make foils

appear plausible by using language that is familiar to the students—language they’ve

encountered in assigned readings or in class. (Doing so will ensure fairness and will

allow you to defend validity.)

c. Construct foils that have a similar length as the correct response. Why? For one thing,

Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One

test-wise students know that correct responses are often longer than foils.

d. Make sure the correct response is clearly (i.e., unquestionably) the correct response.

e. Use a positive form. Negatives (such as “not”) often confuse or can be overlooked. If you

ever must use a negative, make sure it stands out via bold type or underlining or all caps.

Sample multiple-choice items for review and analysis

Examine the following sample items (written for Chapter 9). What cognitive demands does each

one make? How well do they follow the guidelines for quality construction? How and to what

degree does each one reinforce learning and promote future application?

Sample one:

This type of outline is a diagnostic tool that helps you see where you’ve been and where you are going.

A) mind map

B) working outline

C) keyword outline

D) formal outline

Sample two:

The primary purpose for having a key–word outline is to _____.

A) create the illusion that the speaker is speaking from memory

B) create the impression that the speaker has prepared carefully for the presentation

C) improve the effectiveness of one’s delivery, via an extemporaneous style

D) reduce the amount of paper the speaker will have to carry to the podium.

Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One

Sample three:

Nikko is giving a speech about how the U.S. lags behind many other countries in terms of family-

friendly workplaces. Which of the following comprises the BEST point in such a speech?

A) The U.S. could be more family-friendly in its support of motherhood.

B) The U.S. is one of only five countries out of 173 surveyed that does not guarantee some

form of paid maternity leave; the others are Lesotho, Liberia, Swaziland, and Papua New

Guinea.

C) According to Harvard researchers, the United States lags far behind virtually all wealthy

countries with regard to family-oriented workplace policies such as maternity leave, paid

sick days, and support for breast-feeding.

D) The U.S. needs to establish a maximum work week length and limit mandatory overtime

per week

Four quizzes and a final

I prefer quizzes over exams. I have found several advantages.

(1) Enhances learning—Quizzes can be given sooner and more frequently than major

exams. As a result, students have to remain on top of things, steadily involved with the

(2) Provides ongoing assessment—Each quiz will indicate what I need to try to explain

(3) Is less overwhelming—Rather than study for one or two big exams, I have them

tackle smaller chunks. (In your own experiences, which worked better for you?)

(4) Allows more efficient and effective use of class time—Rather than devote a complete

(5) Is more “humane”—That’s how some students have described frequent quizzes versus

having a midterm and final.

Note: If you give more than four quizzes, you might allow students to drop their lowest score. This common practice

rarely inflates a student’s overall grade (especially since speeches likely are worth substantially more), and

Preparing students for an exam

To lessen students’ apprehension about an upcoming exam and direct their preparation, nothing

works better than viewing and discussing sample items. The sample, of course, must be

representative of the actual instrument. Include items that involve whatever cognitive demands

you’ll be making.

Consider allowing notes during the exam

For several years now, I have been allowing students to use notes during the exam and I

encourage you to do the same. I wish I’d have always done so!

I allow one page of notes, which can be front and back. They will hand in their notes with the

test instrument (as part of my security measures), placing their name on their notes. Their notes

may be handwritten or typed—whichever they prefer. I also allow them (and even encourage

them) to work with others to create the notes.

This practice has yielded numerous benefits, namely:

a. Students actually study (and have more accountability to do so, since I actually see

“evidence” of their preparations).

Administering the exam efficiently

On the day of the test, arrive early, if possible, to interact with students and help put them at ease. Answer

any last-minute questions. Try to start the exam on time.

As a common courtesy (and to alleviate confusion or distractions), have extra pencils available—

already sharpened. If a student arrives with an unsharpened pencil or breaks a lead or runs out of ink

during the exam, I simply trade a fresh pencil for whatever they have. I tell them to gesture during the

exam if they need a fresh writing instrument. They may trade back after the exam.

Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One

Make-up examinations

I’ll defer to McKeachie (1999) who suggests that we avoid the practice of allowing make-up exams. He

cites concerns over a student’s knowledge of exam content, if we use the same instrument. If we create

a new instrument, his concerns center upon the extra work for the instructor as well as the fairness of

the new instrument should it not be comparable to the original test. In addition, he cites problems of

Security measures for the exam

Most students are honest. It’s the occasional dishonest one that necessitates security measures.

The following pointers should prove helpful:

(1) Keep all drafts and all copies of the exam secure. Number each copy with a permanent

marker. Keep track of each copy before, during, and after the exam. To do so, create a

(2) Instruct students to put away and out of sight all items they have brought with them.

Allow no scraps of paper or marked up notebook covers to lay in full view on the floor

(3) The same numbers that provide security can help you distribute the exam quickly.

Simply count the number of students in the first row and send that number down the

(4) Consider creating more than one order for the items. If I’m administering the exam in a

large class, I’ll often reverse the items and stack the copies so that neighbors will have

(5) Have students enter their name on the exam copy as well as on anything else they submit.

If they are submitting responses on a bubble-in form, have them also enter the number of

(6) Monitor students as they take the test. Establish eye contact with students who seem to

have wandering eyes to let them know they are under surveillance. You might quietly

assign them a new seat off to themselves if they seem overly tempted. If questionable

looking materials are laying about in full view, collect them. If the materials are

Grading, adjusting, and scoring exams

Grade with your usual care. Use item analyses to make any adjustments. If you have a large number of

exams, you likely will want to have them scored and analyzed by the testing and measurement center on

your campus, if you have access to the service. The printed results will call your attention to any

potentially problematic items. If you’re grading a small enough number you might simply notice if an

Establishing a profile of the exam

Determine the distribution of the exam in terms of how many students scored in the “A” range, “B” range,

and so on. It’s generally agreed that the ideal distribution exhibits a few “As,” a few more “Bs,” a lot of

Presenting and discussing exam results

As with anything you collect from students, try to provide quick turnaround. Return the exam

results at the next meeting if at all possible. You might prefer to return to all at once, or via small

groups. I prefer the latter. Let’s discuss both, so you can get a feel for each approach.

Returning all at once:

I may return results at the beginning of the class or towards the end, depending on what is

scheduled for the day. If it is to be the last item on the agenda, I simply announce at the beginning

of class that I will be returning and discussing exam results later in the period.

Before returning their individual results, I enter the distribution on the board. If any

Returning via small groups:

I return results while simultaneously conducting an in-class, small group activity. As groups get

underway I provide (if I haven’t already) information about distribution of scores on the

whiteboard or projected on screen. I then interrupt each group for a moment, allowing them to see

their actual test. I have marked any item they may have missed with what would comprise the

correct response. If I determined, during the course of grading, that another response would also

be accepted for full or partial credit, I indicate that as well.

This approach yields numerous benefits.

1) I am able to maintain security without having to require all cell phones being, again,

placed at the front of the room as they were during the exam (which I discuss above); it

Student assistance with analysis

Students sometimes identify legitimate problems with a particular item, and when they do I

acknowledge it. If it’s a clear-cut case, I may be able to decide an adjustment then and there. If

Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One

367

Individual complaints about an item

If a student has a complaint about a particular item and I have not satisfied the complaint, I invite

the student to come to my office so we can look over the matter more carefully. If the student can

convince me that his or her response merits complete or partial credit, I’ll award it. If not, I’ll

Online testing: A cautionary note

Tests administered in the online environment are less likely to produce good outcomes as a means of

instruction and assessment. One word explains why, and that word (as you might suspect) is “cheating.”

Our suspicion is well founded. Cheating is widespread, especially in the online environment (see

Kennedy, et al., 2000). Various authors have researched the matter and their findings help explain why

cheating is so common.

For one, cheating on an online exam is easily done, and there are many means to do so. One obvious

means is to have the book and other materials, at hand, to serve as test-taking notes, even when the

instructor has not designated that the test is “open-book.” The temptation to have the book at hand is

likely great. Recognizing the magnitude of the temptation and how some may give in, I try to establish a

level playing field by designating the exam to be “open book” and “open notes.” I warn them that they

will need to read, anyway, as they will have a limited amount of time to click on (or draft) an answer, plus

Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One

There is no denying it; once we post something online, it becomes common property,

accessible to all. Our tests are essentially compromised as soon as we post them. Just as a new

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References

Clegg, V.L. & Cashin, W.E. (1986). Improving multiple choice tests (Idea Paper

No. 16). Manhattan, KS: Kansas State University, Center for Faculty Evaluation and

Development.

Katz, J.E. (2005). Mobile phones in educational settings. In K. Nyiri (Ed.), A sense

of place: The global and local in mobile communication. (pp. 305–317). Vienna:

Passagen.

Kennedy, K., Nowak, S., Raghuraman, R., Thomas, J., & Davis, S. (2000, June).

Academic Dishonesty And Distance Learning: Student And Faculty Views. College

Student Journal, 34(2), 309. Retrieved December 24, 2008, from Academic Search

Premier database.

McKeachie, W.J. (1994). Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for

College and University Teachers. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and Company.

McKeachie, W.J. (1999). Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for

College and University Teachers (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Molnar, K.K., Kletke, M.G., & Chongwatpol, J. (2008). Ethics vs. IT Ethics: Do

Undergraduate Students Perceive a Difference? Journal of Business Ethics, 83, 567–

651. Retrieved December 24, 2008, from Academic Search Premier database.