Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
enlist “the practice of ‘sandwiching’ negative feedback between positive comments” (p. 411). To these
Providing written feedback on speech outlines and other submissions
Even though we want students to desire criticism, we must be careful not to overwhelm them with too
much. Let’s consult the experts about this and other aspects of productive feedback.
Book (1985) notes that written feedback is the best means for providing corrective feedback (i.e.,
(1) Quickly read through the formal outline or other submission, looking only for the primary idea, the
(2) Respond “positively and personally” (p. 29) where possible. Do so because “writers begin to care
(4) If a submission exhibits numerous problems, avoid pointing out every little thing. Instead, “single out
(5) Rather than edit the entire submission, model a few edits and ask the student to revise the remainder
(6) If you require multiple drafts for an assignment, provide comments for early drafts but grade only the
(7) Use a pencil because “it’s more forgiving on both of you” (p. 30).
(9) View and discuss good and not-so-good models from actual submissions by former students. Keep
(11) Avoid assigning one grade for content and another for the expression. As Fulwiler observes: “When
Offering negative feedback
Karla Jensen & Elizabeth Lamoureux (1997) also provide insights into providing written feedback to
students about their speeches. They found that students deem negative feedback as helpful (and perhaps
take it more seriously than positive remarks). Students were especially appreciative of negative feedback
that helped them improve their delivery.
Another study offers a cautionary note when it comes to offering negative feedback. Camile D. Smith
and Paul E. King (2004) noted that some individuals, those “with a high sensitivity to feedback,”
Marking student submissions: Less is more
Numerous composition theorists, such as Richard H. Haswell (1983), recommend minimal marking of
students’ papers. Minimal marking refers to using a mark, such as a check mark, to signal a problem area
in a paper. The student is alerted but must figure out the problem and the corrective. As Haswell explains,
“the best mark is that which allows students to correct the most on their own with the least help” (p. 604).
Providing audiotaped feedback
Here’s a novel, provocative approach. Jeff Kerssen-Griep (2001) provides feedback, via audiotape, for his
students. He finds it very efficient for him as well as “effective” and even “motivational” for his students.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Providing oral critique of speeches
It can be done well or it can be disastrous. Some instructors say do it after each speech. Others say at the
When to critique
When it comes to answering the age-old question of “when?” (i.e., immediately after each speech or at the
What to critique
Paul E. King, Melissa J. Young, and Ralph R. Behnke (2000) make a compelling case for what we should
offer as immediate feedback. Oral critique is most effective (and perhaps less nerve wracking) if it focuses
on less deliberative matters, such as “eye contact, gestures, vocal rate and volume, disfluencies, facial
expression, etc.” (p. 367). In contrast, tasks that “require conscious, effortful deliberation and preplanning”
How to critique
My usual strategy, in keeping with what Book (1985) suggests, is to confine criticism between speeches to
a quick, positive stroke or two. Then, at the end of class I quickly reiterate the praise and then identify a
few goals for improvement. For example, if several students read their speech as opposed to presenting it,
and if several failed to cite sources well, I might comment as follows at the end of class (after the praise).
So we’re doing a lot of the right things. As for what we can do better:
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Taking a moment between speeches
Perhaps I should bold the word “moment.” Keep comments very brief between speeches. Don’t attempt
to do too much. Realize that whatever you say should be instructive for the class, especially since the
speaker may be too keyed up immediately after speaking to attend very closely to your remarks. Hence,
you don’t want to expend valuable time when at least one member of the class is not able to listen very
effectively and may be wanting out of the spotlight.
If you seize a moment, concentrate on one or two positive aspects of the speech, the things other
speakers should emulate.
Provide a segue
If you know who’s speaking next and her or his topic, you may be able to provide a sense of continuity
between speeches. If so, you can model a good transition from one speaker to the next—something students
may find beneficial if ever involved in a symposium. You can provide the segue after a quick positive
stroke.
the latest innovations in solar power.”
Providing purposeful critique
Gary Ruud (1992) emphasizes the importance of knowing one’s educational purpose for providing critique.
Ruud identifies and reviews four perspectives about the purpose of critiques, noting that an instructor may
operate from one or more of the perspectives when commenting upon a speech after it is presented. These
perspectives include:
(2) Personal growth perspective — the instructor provides feedback calculated to
(3) Mimetic perspective — the student is made more aware of the validity of his
(4) Formalistic perspective — the student is made more aware of how he or she
“conformed to standards explicated in the text and in lecture” (p. 73). This
perspective assumes that universal principles exist for effective speechmaking.
Contemplating your critical persona
Ruud (1992) also suggests that instructors identify their envisioned role as a critic. Various personas
exist, and the instructor may adopt some sort of blend. These include:
(1) Coach — the instructor who conceives of her or his role as a coach “tries to
(2) Judge — this instructor compares what a student has done to the
(3) Articulate audience member — the instructor “reports how the speech
Contemplating “their” critical persona
Yes, they have one, too; our students each have their very own critical persona, which impacts how they
interpret our feedback. This is noteworthy, and worthy of study. Colleen C. Malachowski et. al. (2013)
review four specific orientations/dimensions identified in prior studies (p. 129) and consider the
implications.
1) Feedback utility is “students’ perceptions of instructional feedback value and usefulness for
improving their academic performance.”
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Students who are apprehensive or who lack confidence in their own abilities generally have more
sensitivity and a higher need for confidentiality. Based on the relevant research and their own
investigation, these authors suggest that immediacy and facework (both of which I’ve discussed earlier)
can mitigate apprehension and lack of confidence, thus bolstering learning (along with its retention),
motivation, satisfaction, and more.
Students who overestimate their own ability/mastery (and who may be verbally aggressive,
defensive, or “Machiavellian”) likewise exhibit heightened sensitivity and an increased desire for
Whether written or oral, model a few correctives
Robert Brangert-Drowns and others (1991) note that students learn best from feedback that not only
identifies an error, but also includes the correct response (if there is one) or models an acceptable
response (if several correct responses exist). We likely will do the latter, since public speaking is an art,
not a science. For example, if a student has not adapted the topic to the audience, we might point out
how it could have been done. If the thesis does not reflect the points very well, we might indicate how it
could be revised to do so.
Modeling correctives will take a bit of time. If we target only a few things to model, however, it will
Questions in place of correctives
Rather than always tell a student what she or he needs to do to correct a problem in a speech or other
written submission, present a question that identifies the problem. For example, if a student has a thesis that
does not accurately reflect the main points, the instructor could write: “How might you modify your thesis
to reflect your main points?” As Daniel B. Willingham (1990) observes, questions will “keep students in the
process [of revision]” (p. 11).
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Peer critiques
In a summary of the literature about peer critique, Book (1985) writes: “Research indicates that students can
be trained to give helpful feedback to their peers and that the feedback given by students is similar to that
given by teachers, especially when criteria for evaluating the speech are clearly identified” (p. 22).
What belongs and does not belong in a student’s grade
We should grade a student on the basis of what we are looking for, right? In the first entry to this section
we described what we are looking for as follows: “We look for students to acquire a knowledge of what
elements and practices contribute to an effective presentation, and we also look for them to exhibit
improved skills in speechmaking.” Hence, the grade a student receives for a class in public speaking should
indicate how much she or he seems to know and understand about speechmaking as well as her or his skills
as a public speaker. What else could possibly belong?
Rebecca B. Rubin (1990) notes that some instructors include things that clearly do not belong, namely
Assigning a score vs. assigning a letter grade
There are two schools of thought. I’ll present mine and then review the other. You decide.
During the semester, I don’t fool around with letter grades (except to report a midterm grade). Instead, I
keep life simple by assigning numerical scores to all student submissions. I know the points possible for
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Grade inflation: Yikes!
If you give your students inflated notions of their abilities, then you are guilty of grade inflation. The
inflated notions that accompany inflated grades can stunt students’ understanding and development. They
may think they are doing “okay” or “just fine” when they are not. Dare we mislead them and leave them to
discover later, as they pursue their careers or an advanced degree that they aren’t up to par? Honesty must
be our policy and standards must be our guide.
To require or not require the whole experience
I’ve often made it a policy that students must complete all assignments and take all major exams in order to
receive credit for the course. It’s a common practice, and one to consider. If you decide to do so, remember
to include it (like any other policy) on your syllabus.
Incompletes
Assign an incomplete only when it fits the official criteria specified by your school (which you will want to
read carefully before considering whether to assign an incomplete). At most institutions, incompletes are
intended to assist students who had something happen out of their control that essentially prohibits their
finishing coursework by semester’s end. Usually, too, the student is expected to have completed a majority
of the course and only lack a final assignment and/or final exam.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
A note for first-time instructors:
Before assigning an “incomplete”
You will want to consult your course director or department chair prior to
assigning an incomplete. Not only can they help you determine if an incomplete is the
best route, they will need to be aware of the situation in case they are contacted by an
administrator. They also will need a copy of the contract for the incomplete’s
fulfillment, in the event that you depart the campus while the grade is still pending.
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References
Ball, H. & Goodboy, A.K. (2014). An experimental investigation of the antecedents and
consequences of psychological reactance in the college classroom. Communication Education,
63, 192–209.
Chenowith, N.A. (1987). The need to teach rewriting. ELT Journal, 41, 25–29.
Cole, W. (1993, January 6). By rewarding mediocrity we discourage excellence. The
Chronicle of Higher Education, 39, 81–82.
Fulwiler, T. (1986). The argument for writing across the curriculum. In A. Young and T.
Fulwiler (Eds.), Writing across the disciplines: Research into practice (pp. 21–32). Upper
Montclair, NJ: Boynton/Cook Publishers.
Haswell, R.H. (1983). Minimal marking. College English, 45, 600–604.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
improvement as a function of information processing in immediate and delayed feedback
interventions. Communication Education, 49, 365–374.
Smith, C.D. and King, P.E. (2004). Student feedback sensitivity and the efficacy of
feedback interventions in public speaking performance improvement. Communication
Education, 53, 203–216
Sprague, J. (1993). Why teaching works: The transformational power of pedagogical
communication. Communication Education, 42, 349–366.
Thompson, Blair and Joseph P. Mazer (2009). College student ratings of student academic
support: Frequency, importance, and modes of communication. Communication Education,
58, 433–458.
Titsworth, S., Mazer, J.P., Goodboy, A.K., Bolkan, S. and Myers, S.A. (2015) Two meta-
analyses exploring the relationship between teacher clarity and student learning.
Communication Education, 64, 385–418.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Constructing
and
Administering Examinations
Preview
A good examination can measure and facilitate learning plus
assess the effectiveness of one’s instruction. Quizzes pose
some advantages to lengthy exams. The follow-up provided
for either can be highly instructive, as well as an opportunity
to build rapport.
Exams: Objectives
We administer exams for a variety of reasons. Obviously, we want to test students’ understanding
Ghostwritten exams still require an instructor’s know-how
Whether I’m reviewing items I’ve drafted, items that my staff has submitted, or items from a test
bank, it is not unusual to detect problems. With revision, an item may be salvaged, but sometimes
it’s easier to write a new one altogether.
The ability to discern a good item from a faulty one is but one reason why instructors need to
know how to construct a good item (which I will discuss below). Another reason is to be able to
field students’ questions. When you disclose the results of an exam, for example, students
The examination: Constructing a good instrument
As with anything else we do in class, our goals for the class should guide what we test and how
we test. For example, we’ll likely want students to understand what goes into a good thesis
statement, and we will want them to be able to apply what they understand. To test their ability to