Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Teaching Public Speaking 4e
Part One: Insights and Strategies
Contents:
Contemplating the Teacher’s Role and “Speech” as the Subject
Qualities of Teaching Effectiveness
Establishing Learning Objectives and Promoting Learning
Instructional Strategies
Evaluating Student Performance and Providing Feedback
Constructing and Administering Examinations
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Contemplating the Teacher’s Role
and
“Speech” as the Subject
Preview
This first section contemplates what it means to be
a teacher as well as the nature of speech communication
and its place in the curriculum.
Contemplating one’s role as a teacher
One can enlist various metaphors to describe and clarify the role of teacher. Many teachers choose
“coach” or “guide.” Both of these terms convey a sense of expertise on the part of teacher but also convey
a mutual accountability for learning (e.g., players have to work out rigorously and otherwise actively
strive to develop and improve, heeding a coach’s input).
As you contemplate your role, try on a few metaphors and see what they imply. Which ones lend the
most accurate portrayals? Which seem most healthy? Which ones might you share with your students?
A Hart-felt description
When it comes to providing a profile of the teacher, Roderick P. Hart (1993) penned one of the best
I’ve seen. In a lively essay, Hart divulges three of the reasons why he “likes” teachers (and does so
with an eloquence that deserves preservation, so pardon me for quoting him at length). For one, Hart
writes, “teachers think,” explaining that “teachers are important not because they have the answers
but because they have such interesting questions” (p. 99). Good teachers, in other words, are driven
by curiosity, and they pique the curiosity of others.
Second, Hart notes, “teachers feel.” He observes that “teachers are reliably concerned about
human rights and equal opportunity and giving people a fair break” (p. 99). He notes that teaching
communication is caught up in this concern and driven by this mission.
Third, Hart observes, “teachers act.” The action they perform is to “make people better than they
thought they could be; better sometimes than they want to be; better, often, than their own parents
could make them” (p. 100).
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
A class in public speaking nurtures more than speaking ability; Hart observes that “in helping a
student unlock his or her thoughts for others, the communication teacher also unlocks a potentially
The importance of what we teach and nurture
Hart’s view of our subject matter states that which has been longstanding in our field (as we discuss in
Chapter 1 of the text). Stephen E. Lucas has also expressed the view well. Lucas (1990) writes: “Although
introductory public speaking is properly a skills course, it should not be characterized as ‘just’ a skills
course. By helping students become capable, responsible speakers, it also helps them become capable,
responsible thinkers. In this respect it remains today, as it has been through much of Western civilization,
a vital part of humanistic education and democratic citizenship” (p. 69).
In another chapter in the same edited volume, Gustav W. Friedrich and Don M. Boileau (1990)
observe that the communication discipline “views communicative behavior as basic to human activity—to
Why critical thinking?
Why encourage critical thinking? Perhaps Toby Fulwiler (1986) captures it best: “The ability to think
critically separates the autonomous, independent people, capable of making free choices, from mere
passive receivers of information” (p. 25). The textbook and your instruction will coach students along
these lines, and the discussion questions and activities (presented in the chapter-by-chapter guide of this
manual) will as well.
Excitement and fear
As teachers of public speaking, we can be proud of what we do and excited about our roles as educators.
Our students, however, may not share our enthusiasm—not initially, anyway. Many may quake with fear
or simply discount the experience. (I examine strategies for subduing their fears and awakening their
appreciation in a special section of this manual—located in part three, below.)
Personal benefits for the teacher
Watching students grow, and grow excited by the subject matter, is uplifting. Feeling the energy of a class
when things go well is “cloud nine.” When you’ve been there, little tops it, and chances are it is more than
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
A teacher’s accountability
What a teacher does has ramifications in and out the classroom. The implications are captured quite well
by two top scholars/officers in the field, Linda L. Putnam and Martin J. Medhurst. Both underscore the
importance of quality in the basic course and have permitted us to print their words.
“Your role as an instructor and as a representative to the department is critical. We want
students who take this course to receive beneficial training in public speaking and to feel
positive about the department and the field of speech communication.”
Linda L. Putnam, U.C. Santa Barbara
“As an instructor in the basic course, you have one of the most important jobs in the
Martin J. Medhurst, Baylor University
As Putnam and Medhurst point out, what a teacher does has broad implications for how our discipline
is perceived by students. We might add that one’s performance also affects how other departments,
administrators, and students’ friends and families (the greater public) view our department and discipline.
A sense of mission
We have the power to change the world, and we likely never will know, fully, in what ways or to what
extent. Crazy? Deluded? I think not, because we very likely will influence and nurture people who will
make a difference.
You simply need peruse the newsletters your school produces, particularly sections detailing what
A note for first-time instructors
Your appointment signals that your department has faith in your abilities
to teach and to represent the department. You are fortunate to “be in the same
boat” as others—having a ready-made support group to discuss ideas and
approaches. You also, no doubt, have a number of professors available who
would welcome the opportunity to discuss teaching. Enjoy the camaraderie and
the exhilaration teaching can bring.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
References
Boyer, E. (1991), Preparing tomorrow’s professoriate. In J.D. Nyquist, R.D.
Abbott, D.H. Wulff, & J. Sprague (Eds.), Preparing the professoriate of tomorrow to
teach: Selected readings in TA training (pp. 3–11). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt
Publishing.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Qualities of Teaching Effectiveness
Preview
Boyer’s prescription for teaching effectiveness
Philosophers of education have discussed the attributes of a successful teacher. Among them,
Ernest Boyer (1991) inventoried “four characteristics” that lay at the heart of successful teaching.
Let’s consider each of these.
(1) Teachers must be well-informed
This is obvious, eh? Just as a student’s knowledge about a speech topic should exceed what she or
(2) Teachers must be able to relate their knowledge to their students
In our text we’ve emphasized the importance of audience-centered communication. In
(3) Teachers must stimulate “creative and active learning”
The teacher also contemplates the best ways to deliver a lesson and utilizes whatever seems best—
(4) Teachers must be “open and authentic human beings” and “have integrity”
Openness, as we know from studying interpersonal communication, engenders trust and
appreciation as well as encourages reciprocal disclosure. One of the best ways to get students to open up
is to open up a bit yourself.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Segue: Adding to the inventory
Passion for learning and teaching
The best classes are those in which the teacher is animated by the topic and by a heartfelt appreciation of
students. These teachers seek to nurture within students that which will help them succeed and grow.
These are the teachers we most remember, such as Professor Robert Gunderson (Indiana University), who
captured various moments in history and made them come alive, helping us understand how each moment
contributed to whom we are as a people and what we struggle with to this day. He shared with us what he
had glimpsed, so as to sharpen our own critical awareness and abilities.
Professor Gunderson often began class quietly, his manner gentle. But as he escorted us through
political debates and maneuverings in history and in current events, he’d begin to rumble and growl, and
Professionalism
Being professional entails more than being well-versed and up-to-date. The “golden rule” (i.e., treating
others as you’d want to be treated) is one of the best guides for being professional and ethical. Simply
treat your students as you would want a teacher to treat you. The same goes for colleagues, secretarial
staff, custodians, everyone with whom you interact and whom your actions will affect. To be
professional, simply be thoughtful, considerate, and helpful. Little things like smiling and saying “hello”
Accessibility
Part of being professional, of course, is being accessible to students. Set office hours with an eye toward
those that are not only convenient for you, but also will likely best accommodate your students. Also be
available by appointment—once it’s determined that students cannot make it during office hours and it’s a
matter that can’t be handled via phone or e-mail. In short, be there for them when they need you.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Keep in mind that you will also benefit from being accessible to students. For example, students
likely will perform better as a result of your input and guidance. For another, they most likely will be
When you’re not accessible: What to expect; what to do
You can expect a not-so-good evaluation from students if you miss or otherwise neglect office hours.
Research indicates doing so is one offense that students find hard to forgive (see Mottet, et al. 2006).
If you know you’re going to have to miss office hours (attending a convention, having oral surgery,
etc.) announce it in class—more than once if possible—and e-mail students a reminder. As a goodwill
Office hours: Let students see they have priority
I’ve found it a good idea to assume I will have no time during office hours to grade speeches, work on my
own projects, and so on. Instead, I assume that one or more students will show up, needing to meet with
me. The way I see it, they are why we hold office hours, so we must protect the time we’ve allotted to
them and dedicate it solely to them. When a student appears, I smile and set aside whatever I’m doing.
I let my colleagues know this. If a colleague is in my office chatting and a student shows up at my
door, I immediately request that we pick up our conversation later, turn my attention to the student, and
welcome him or her in to have a seat.
It’s on video: We look at the effective use of office hours in our video for instructor training and
development. The video accompanies our manual for supervisors.
Immediacy: It works wonders!
Numerous scholars have examined the effects of immediacy. Immediacy refers to behaviors that suggest
enthusiasm and liking toward students and interaction with them. Specific nonverbal behaviors associated
with immediacy include establishing eye contact, smiling, dynamism, and other “friendly” displays that
suggest the speaker is enjoying the presence of the other(s) and the interaction. Verbal behaviors
1) LaBelle, S., Martin, M.M., & Weber, K. (2013). Instructional dissent in the college classroom:
Using the instructional beliefs model as a framework. Communication Education, 62, 169–190.
2) Mottet, T.P., Parker-Raley, J., Beebe, S.A., and Cunningham, C. (2007). Instructors who resist
“college lite”: The neutralizing effect of instructor immediacy on students’ course workload
violations and perceptions of instructor credibility and affective learning. Communication
Education, 56, 147–167.
Mottet and his team of researchers found that students tolerate a heavy work load better if the
instructor exhibits nonverbal immediacy behaviors, generating the perception of being “warm and
3) Witt, P.L., Wheeless, L.R., and Allen, M. (2004). A meta-analytical review of the relationship
between teacher immediacy and student learning. Communication Monographs, 71, 184–207.
In reviewing “the findings of 81 studies” of immediacy (verbal and nonverbal) as related
4) Teven, J.J. & McCroskey, J.C. (1997). The relationship of perceived teacher caring with
student learning and teacher evaluation. Communication Education, 46, 1–9.
5) Teven, J.J. & Gorham, J. (1998). A qualitative analysis of low-inference student perceptions of
teacher caring and non-caring behaviors within the college classroom. Communication Research
Reports, 15, 288–298.
6) Kerssen-Griep, J., & Witt, P.L. (2015). Instructional feedback III: How do
instructor facework tactics and immediacy cues interact to predict student perceptions
of being mentored? Communication Education, 64, 1–24.
These authors provide additional information and insights into the link between
immediacy and learning, also factoring in face threat mitigation. They find that
7) Kelly, S., Rice, C., Wyatt, B, Duckling, J, & Denton, Z. (2015) Teacher
immediacy and decreased student quantitative reasoning anxiety: The mediating
effect of perception. Communication Education, 64, 171–186.
We may very well enjoy another positive outcome from our immediacy
behaviors. These authors find that “teacher immediacy cues may serve as an
7) Zhang, Q., Oetzel, J.G., Gao, X., Wilcox, R.G., and Takai, J. (2007). Teacher immediacy scales:
Testing for validity across cultures. Communication Education, 56, 228–248.
You’ve heard that a smile is universally understood, right? To some extent that is true. For
8) McCroskey, J.C., Sallinen, A., Fayer, J.M., Richmond, V.P., & Barraclough, R.A. (1996).
Nonverbal immediacy and cognitive learning: A cross-cultural investigation. Communication
Education, 45, 200–211.
These authors advance the theory that “in highly immediate cultures [e.g., ‘Spanish-
9) Gorham, J. (1988). The relationship between verbal teacher immediacy behaviors and student
learning. Communication Education, 37, 4–53.
10) Menzel, K.E. & Carrell, L.J. (1999). The impact of gender and immediacy on willingness to
talk and perceived learning. Communication Education, 48, 31–40.
11) Jaasma, M.A. & Koper, R.J. (1999). The relationship of student-faculty out-of-class
communication to instructor immediacy and trust and to student motivation. Communication
Education, 48, 41–47.
Making time for students and otherwise interacting with them outside the classroom can lead to
12) Moore, A., Masterson, J.T., Christophel, D.M., & Shea, K.A. (1996). College teacher
immediacy and student ratings of instruction. Communication Education, 45, 29–39.
Data collected by these authors suggest that “instructors are rated more positively by students
13) Comstock, J., Rowell, E., and Bowers, J.W. (1995). Food for thought: Teacher nonverbal
immediacy, student learning, and curvilinearity. Communication Education, 44, 251–266.
14) Thweatt, K.S. and McCroskey, J.C. (1998). The impact of teacher immediacy and
misbehaviors on teacher credibility. Communication Education, 47, 348–358.
These authors note that some teachers’ behaviors inevitably will be perceived as misbehaviors.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Immediacy: Can there be too much of a good thing?
Moderation “in all things” is a good mantra for living, and—you guessed it—the same applies to
immediacy. Yep, we can overdo immediacy and it can be quite costly if we do. Carolyn H. Rester and
Credibility and immediacy: Both are important
You’ve likely heard this famous quotation from an unknown source: “Kids don’t care how much you
know until they know how much you care.” In a way this is true, but it’s not altogether accurate. Lanette
Credibility and prosocial behaviors: A key to instructional effectiveness
Paul Schrodt, et. al. (2009) herald “instructor credibility” as “one of the key mechanisms by which . . .
enhanced learning takes place.” Their explanation extends beyond immediacy to a broader range of
Confirmation can also work wonders (& Millennials—especially—seem to “need it”)
Confirming behaviors, explain Goldman and Goodboy (2014), are when instructors “communicate to
students that they are significant and valuable members of the classroom” (p. 273). These authors find
that students not only experience “positive emotional outcomes” but also “increased learning” when they
experience confirming behaviors (p. 273). When students feel good about self, subject matter, and
In all things, be positive
Being positive, notes Zhang & Zhang (2013), has important implications for the classroom. Being
positive can “facilitate student engagement and improve student critical thinking,” prompting these
authors to advise instructors to “be as positive in emotions as possible, even if . . . sometimes . . . [one
has] to engage in emotional labor and pretend to be happy and positive.” They underscore the importance
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
of our actions, noting that “teachers’ positive emotions are contagious and infectious, and students may
converge emotionally and mimic to synchronize the teacher’s emotions consciously or subconsciously”
(p. 407).
Reading their words reminds me of the bard’s words from long ago, that “all the world’s a stage.”
As instructors—we’re certainly in full view, and how we assume our role does impact our audience. They
are looking on, affected by what they see/experience. Much of what we do is rehearsed, but we also have
to improvise at times, and the insights of these authors help guide our improvisation.
Being the mind reader I am, I know what you’re thinking. “This being positive thing is a tall order.”
Yes, at times it is.
Enhancing instruction via relational development
Studies of immediacy have revealed the importance of how a teacher communicates with her or his
students. Ann Bainbridge Frymier and Marian L. Houser (2000) take the research a step further; they
examine what comprises a productive relationship between teacher and student. They describe teaching as
Enhancing instruction via relational development among peers
Studies suggest we’d do well to help nurture a sense of community, camaraderie, and collegiality
among our students. Blair Thompson and Joseph P. Mazer (2009) found that students “might
prefer to choose other students for academic support, rather than teachers.” Those who preferred
assistance from fellow students did so, in large measure, because of “access, availability, and
shared context” (p. 453). These authors also reiterate the findings of previous studies that peer
support can “increase student retention and success at the college level” (p. 454).
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Recognizing the impact of student immediacy
Instructors aren’t the only ones who display immediacy. It’s a two-way street; students also exhibit
varying degrees of immediacy. The degree of immediacy likely will affect our perceptions of the student,
Rapport and its effects
Rapport is another dynamic to consider if one desires good outcomes in the classroom. Brandi N.
Frisby and Matthew M. Martin (2010) define rapport as “an overall feeling between two people
encompassing a mutual, trusting, and prosocial bond” (p. 147). They note that rapport can exist
between instructor and student, as well as between students. Their focus is principally on that of
Enhancing instruction via gender awareness
Teacher-scholars (see Bachen, et al., 1999) have studied gender in the classroom, and their findings
(though now hopefully a bit dated) can remain instructive. They found, for example, that students
(especially females) respond best to a teaching style that includes “caring-expressiveness” as well as
Enhancing instruction via humor
Instructors who effectively employ humor foster perceptions of greater immediacy and “create an
environment conducive to learning” (p. 49), according to Melissa Bekelja Wanzer & Ann B. Frymier
(1999). For this reason, instructors can do well to recognize humor as an instructional strategy. The
authors encourage investigation as well as workshops that explore and model the successful use of humor.
The authors urge some caution and call for further research, but their study is provocative and lends good
insight.
Wanzer et al. (2006) took their own advice. They investigated humor, and their findings provide good
guidelines. These authors found that to use humor “competently as a teaching strategy,” the humor should
be relevant to the subject under discussion as well as not offend students. The authors theorize that humor
is effective because it attracts attention and helps make content “memorable” (p. 192). Their findings
supported the theory, on both counts, providing that the humor was relevant to course content.
A teacher’s attire: Does it matter?
Researchers at West Virginia University found that “casual dress,” such as “faded jeans and flannel
shirts,” may not pose “a detriment to perceptions of instructor effectiveness” (Morris, et al., 1996, p. 146).
K. David Roach (1997), though (at Texas Tech), found that when instructors dress professionally they
will generate a number of positive outcomes. Professional attire contributed to “higher student affective
and cognitive learning” (p.138). And, as a result, students were less likely to misbehave (p. 137), and they
Ethos, efficiency, and effectiveness via organization
Students not only respond to how an instructor dresses, but they also form impressions based upon
whether an instructor is organized (and many teaching evaluation forms asks students to evaluate this
trait!). One way to organize is to keep plenty of file folders handy. Consider using expandable files to
house each set of files. For example, I devote an expandable file to each class and each research project.
I carry the respective file to each class meeting, able to provide any needed review on the spot. With this
system of filing, my life is a lot more sane—except for those days when I grab the wrong expandable file!
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Forging ahead via reflection
As you go about the business of teaching, make brief notations to yourself after a class session about what
Informed Reflection
To gain the best sense of what I’m doing well or what improvements I might make as a teacher, it has
helped me to peruse (as a part of my regular reading routine) scholarly literature pertaining to teaching in
general, communication instruction, and communication in the classroom. I encourage you to likewise
Teaching Workshops
In addition to reading about teaching, consider attending a workshop. Many schools offer workshops for
teachers. In order to determine the ones that might most benefit you, consider the following “consumer
tips” from what continues to be one of the best manuals ever produced for instructors, Teaching Tips:
Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers, by Wilbert J. McKeachie (1999).
Among his pointers (which I’ve paraphrased and modified somewhat):
(1) Make sure you know, specifically, what the workshop is about and how it will be of
particular benefit to you. Will you profit by the experience?
Undertaking a continual quest for knowledge
The chief lesson I learned in graduate school (and am reminded of daily!) is how little I actually do
know. The more I learn, the more gaps I perceive in my knowledge. Teachers can discuss what they
know as well as what curiosities they have (an admirable trait of teachers, as you may recall,
according to Rod Hart in the essay cited in the previous section).
Our curiosities can be provocative as well as inspirational. Students might even take up some
of the questions for research projects (and perhaps the teacher will as well!).
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Spotlight on . . . “A teacher and a scholar”
“Whether society quite knows what it wants, as it pays us to be scholar-teachers, what it really
seeks, more or less blindly, is to keep the rational habits passionately alive in the world. Only
Notes for first-time instructors:
1) Acquiring expertise
Several entries in this section have emphasized the need for a teacher to be well-informed about the
subject being taught. One develops expertise, gradually, over time. And since knowledge is not a static
2) Entering the “conversation”: Don’t be shy
In addition to exploring what others have written regarding a particular subject, one can accelerate her
3) Teaching versus Research: A False Dichotomy
Teaching need not compete with your studies or research activity; these undertakings should be highly
complementary. Just as professors in advanced classes integrate new ideas into their teaching—ideas
that they have encountered during reading and/or formulated during a social-scientific study or some
other type of research—instructors of the basic course likewise can contemplate how what they’re
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
References
Bachen, C.M., McLoughlin, M.M., & Garcia, S.S. (1999). Assessing the role of
gender in college students’ evaluations of faculty. Communication Education, 48, 193–210.
Baringer, D.K. & McCroskey, J.C. (2000). Immediacy in the classroom: Student
immediacy. Communication Education, 49, 178–186.
Boyer, E. (1991), Preparing tomorrow’s professoriate. In J.D. Nyquist, R.D. Abbott,
D.H. Wulff, & J. Sprague (Eds.), Preparing the professoriate of tomorrow to teach: Selected
readings in TA training (pp. 3–11). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
Frisby, B.N. & Martin, M.M. (2010). Instructor-Student and Student-Student
(2006). Testing the neutralizing effect of instructor immediacy on student course
workload expectancy violations and tolerance for instructor unavailability.
Communication Education, 55, 147–166.
53.
Roach, K.D. (1997). Effects of graduate teaching assistant attire on student learning,
misbehaviors, and ratings of instruction. Communication Quarterly, 45, 125–141.
Roca, K.A. & McCroskey, J.C. (1999). The interrelationship of student ratings of
instructors’ immediacy, verbal aggressiveness, homophily, and interpersonal attraction.
Communication Education, 48, 308–316.
Schrodt, Paul et al. (2009). Instructor credibility as a mediator of instructors’
prosocial communication behaviors and students’ learning outcomes. Communication
Education, 58, 350–371.
connectedness in the college classroom. Communication Education, 59, 165–184.
Sprague, J. (1992). The challenges of TA supervision: Viewpoint of a course
supervisor. In J.D. Nyquist & D.H. Wulff (Eds.), Preparing teaching assistants for
instructional roles: Supervising TAs in Communication (pp. 2–15). Annandale, VA: Speech
Communication Association.
Thompson, Blair and Mazer, J. P. (2009). College student ratings of student
academic support: Frequency, importance, and modes of communication.
Communication Education, 58, 433–458.
Titsworth, S., McKenna, T.P., Mazer, J.P., & Quinlan, M.M. (2013). The bright
side of emotion in the classroom: Do teachers’ behaviors predict students’ enjoyment,
hope, and pride? Communication Education, 62, 191–209.
Wanzer, M. B. & Frymier, A. B. (1999). The relationship between student
perceptions of instructor humor and students’ reports of learning. Communication
Education, 48, 48–62.
Zhang, Q. & Zhang, J. (2013). Instructors’ positive emotions: Effects on student
engagement and critical thinking in U.S. and Chinese classrooms. Communication
Education, 62, 395–411.
Teaching Public Speaking 4e: Part One
Establishing Learning Objectives
and
Promoting Learning
Preview
Plan the course and lessons with a set of objectives in mind—goals
that you share with students on the syllabus. For each lesson,
contemplate various ways of teaching to accommodate different
types of learners and to expand your and their repertoire of
learning styles. Seek information and ideas about teaching, and
share what you do with others.
Deciding goals & objectives
As Jo Sprague (1990) observes, “all teachers have goals, but all are not equally aware of their goals or
equally able to articulate them” (p. 19). Sprague would have us heighten our awareness of our goals in order
to plan a more effective course as well as more effective lessons. (Note: If you’re working in the framework of
multiple-section offerings, you’ll likely work cooperatively with others to identify course goals. If you’re a newcomer, they
likely will be supplied.)
For your course, Sprague advises, “select a handful of important outcomes that you value deeply and
really wish for your students” (p. 33). For example, one of my goals for my students in public speaking is
that they learn to compose an effective speech. To help my students achieve this objective, I will need to
Keep in mind that you draft these objectives to clarify your goals for yourself as well as for your
students. Sprague emphasizes the importance of wording them very precisely as well as in a positive
manner and with a friendly tone.
We should observe, of course, that not all objectives will be cognitive ones which we will judge
through behavioral outcomes. Some objectives might target affective learning, such as the goal that students