Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
Lecture Notes
Chapter 1: The Necessity of Intercultural Communication
Learning Objectives
1.1. Describe why intercultural communication is a necessity
1.2. Define and discuss the nature of communication
1.3. Define and discuss the nature of culture
Chapter Outline
I. The Need for Intercultural Communication
A. Due to international tensions around the globe.
B. Due to national conflicts within our own borders, often ignited by racial, religious,
and ethnic tensions, which underscore the necessity for skillful intercultural
communication.
C. The need for competent intercultural communication is felt intrapersonally:
D. Benefits of Intercultural Communication
i. Healthy Communities:
a. Genuine community is a condition of togetherness in which people
have lowered their defenses and learned to accept and celebrate
their differences.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
b. We can no longer define equality as “sameness” but, instead, must
value our differences, whether they be in race, gender, ethnicity,
lifestyle, or even occupation or professional discipline.
c. Through open and honest intercultural communication, people can
work together to achieve goals that benefit everyone, regardless of
group or culture, including the global community in the home,
business, or neighborhood.
d. Healthy communities support all community members and strive to
understand, appreciate, and acknowledge each member.
ii. Increased Commerce:
iii. Reduced Conflict:
a. We can reduce and manage conflict through cooperative
intercultural communication.
b. If we can learn to think and act cooperatively with others who may
not be similar to us by engaging in supportive rather than defensive
communication, we can effectively manage and reduce conflict
with others.
iv. Personal Growth Through Tolerance:
E. Diversity in the United States
i. Rapid growth of diverse populations in the United States.
ii. An increasing number of groups are revitalizing their ethnic traditions and
promoting their cultural and ethnic uniqueness through language.
iii. Town business is conducted in several local languages:
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
iv. There is a growing sense of uncertainty, fear, and distrust among different
cultural, ethnic, and linguistic groups.
a. These feelings create anxiety that can foster separatism rather than
unity.
b. Only when diverse people come together and interact can they unify
rather than separate.
II. Human Communication
A. Communication is the essence of what it means to be human.
B. It is the vehicle by which people initiate, maintain, and terminate their
relationships with others.
E. One’s style of communication can be the source of many interpersonal problems.
i. Marriage counselors and divorce lawyers indicate that a breakdown in
communication is one of the most frequently cited reasons for relational
dissolution in the United States.
ii. A specific kind of communication, public speaking is one of the most
frequently cited fears, even more feared than death.
F. Intercultural communication: Communication between people of different cultures
and ethnicities.
i. Intercultural communication occurs whenever two or more people from
different cultures come together and exchange verbal and nonverbal
messages.
G. The Nature of Human Communication
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
iv. Communication is dynamic, that is, it is active or forceful.
v. Communication is interactive and transactive because it occurs between
people.
a. Communication requires the active participation of two people
sending and receiving messages at the same time, that is, as we are
sending messages we are simultaneously receiving messages
(transactive).
vi. Communication is symbolic:
vii. Communication is intentional: It is performed consciously.
a. Intentional communication exists whenever two or more people
consciously engage in interaction with some purpose.
b. Unintentional communication may exist, however, like, if you pass
a friend in the hallway of your dorm, say hello, and your friend
does not respond.
c. This book takes the position that intentional communication, either
verbal or nonverbal, is more informative than unintentional
communication.
viii. Communication is dependent on the context in which it occurs:
ix. Culture shapes communication, and communication is culture bound:
a. People from different cultures communicate differently.
b. The verbal and nonverbal symbols we use to communicate with our
friends and families are strongly influenced by our culture.
c. Perhaps the most obvious verbal communication difference between
two cultures is language.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
d. Even cultures speaking the same language, however, have different
meanings for different symbols.
H. Human Communication Apprehension
iii. Context-based communication apprehension is restricted to a certain
generalized context, such as public speaking, group meetings, or job
interviews.
a. Persons with context-based communication apprehension
experience anxiety only in certain contexts.
vi. Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24): Self-
report instrument designed to measure communication apprehension.
III. The Nature of Culture
A. Culture: An accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by an
identifiable group of people with a common history and verbal and nonverbal
symbol system.
B. It is ubiquitous and has a profound effect on humans.
C. It is simultaneously invisible yet pervasive.
D. It has a direct influence on the physical, relational, and perceptual contexts.
E. It is difficult to define.
F. Simply put, culture is people.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
G. Accumulated Pattern of Values, Beliefs, and Behaviors
i. Cultures can be defined by their value and belief systems and by the
actions of their members.
ii. People who exist in the same culture generally share similar values and
beliefs.
a. In the United States, individuality is highly valued.
b. Conversely, in Japan, a collectivistic and relatively homogeneous
culture, a sense of groupness and group harmony is valued.
iii. Although many U.S. citizens prefer to think of themselves as unique
individuals, most of them behave in similar ways.
H. An Identifiable Group of People With a Common History
i. At the core of any culture are traditions that are passed on to future
generations.
ii. In many cultures, history is a major component of the formal and informal
education systems.
iii. To learn a culture’s history is to learn that culture’s values.
iv. Historical lessons bind people together:
I. Verbal and Nonverbal Symbol Systems
i. The verbal and nonverbal symbols with which the members of a culture
communicate are culture bound.
ii. Seeing the difference between the verbal codes of any two cultures is easy.
a. Two cultures may share the same verbal code; they may have
dramatically different verbal styles.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
iii. Nonverbal code systems vary significantly across cultures as well.
iv. Nonverbal communication includes the use of body language, gestures,
facial expressions, voice, smell, personal and geographical space, time, and
artifacts.
v. Body language can communicate a great deal about one’s culture.
vi. People also communicate nonverbally through smell.
a. U.S. citizens, in particular, seem obsessed with the smell of the
human body and home environment.
b. Persons from other cultures often complain that U.S. citizens tend to
smell antiseptic.
J. Microcultural Groups
i. Microculture: An identifiable group of people who share a set of values,
beliefs, and behaviors and who possess a common history and a verbal and
nonverbal symbol system that is similar to but systematically varies from
the larger, often dominant cultural milieu.
IV. The Study of Intercultural Communication
A. Intercultural communication: Two persons from different cultures or microcultures
exchanging verbal and nonverbal messages.
B. When people from different cultures come together and communicate with one
another, We call that process “intercultural communication.”
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
D. The term cultural relativism is often attributed to him.
E. Humans believe that one’s native culture is the standard by which other cultures
are observed and judged and that our observations of other cultures are
necessarily biased in favor of our native cultural background.
H. Hall was especially interested in the study of how cultures manage the nonverbal
channels of time (chronemics), space (proxemics), and body language (kinesics).
I. One of Hall’s most fascinating insights was how invisible culture is to its own
members, that is, how most people are so unaware of their own cultural ways of
living.
J. By the late 1960s, we saw the first intercultural communication courses being
offered at universities.
K. In 1970, the International Communication Association established a Division of
Intercultural Communication.
L. L. S. Harms’s 1970 book, Intercultural Communication, is thought to be the first
textbook on the subject.
M. By 1975, the Speech Communication Association established the Division of
Intercultural Communication, and in 1977, the International Journal of
Intercultural Relations began publication.
N. A Contextual Model of Intercultural Communication
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
a. This circle represents the physical, geographical location of the
interaction.
b. It includes the physical geography, architecture, landscape design,
and even climate of a particular culture.
c. In the model, the environmental context is within the microcultural
and cultural contexts.
vi. The two circles within the environmental context represent the perceptual
context(s).
vii. The circles connecting the perceptual contexts in the model form the
sociorelational context.
a. This refers to the relationship between the interactants.
b. The model shows this connection via the sociorelational context.
c. Roles of student and teacher, mother and father vary from culture to
culture. One’s roles prescribe the types of verbal and nonverbal
symbols that are exchanged.
d. The sociorelational context is graphically represented by two circles
labeled nonverbal and verbal code.
O. Intercultural Communication and Uncertainty
P. Intercultural communication apprehension: The fear or anxiety associated with
either real or anticipated interaction with persons from a different culture.
i. When we interact with someone from a different culture, we are faced with
a lot of uncertainty.
ii. This uncertainty about the other person may make us feel nervous and
anxious.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
iii. To effectively interact with someone from a different culture, we must be
able to predict how our interaction partner is likely to behave and, based on
those predictions, select our appropriate verbal and nonverbal messages.
vi. Components of models of communication competence:
a. The cognitive component refers to how much one knows about
communication.
b. The affective component includes one’s motivation to approach or
avoid communication.
c. The behavioral component refers to the skills one has to interact
competently.
d. An interculturally competent communicator is motivated to
communicate, knowledgeable about how to communicate, and
skilled in communicating.
e. An interculturally competent communicator is sensitive to the
expectations of the context in which communication occurs.
vii. Competent communicators interact effectively by adapting messages
appropriately to the context.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
b. Identifying such individuals may be the first step toward more
effective and successful intercultural communication.
xii. Personal Report of Intercultural Communication Apprehension (PRICA):
a. This scale was developed by communication researchers Neuliep
and McCroskey.
b. PRICA is similar to the Personal Report of Communication
Apprehension (PRCA-24).
xiii. As confidence increases, intercultural communication competence also
is likely to increase.
xiv. People who are nervous and tense about interacting with people from
different cultures are less likely to approach intercultural communication
situations and probably are not confident about encountering new people
from different cultures.
V. Fundamental Assumptions About Intercultural Communication
A. Assumption #1: During intercultural communication, the message sent is usually
not the message received.
B. Assumption #2: Intercultural communication is primarily a nonverbal act between
people.
C. Hall has argued that people from different cultures live in different sensory worlds.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
D. Hall claims that people from different cultures engage in a selective screening of
sensory information that ultimately leads to different perceptions of experience.
E. Our nonverbal messages complement, augment, accent, substitute for, and repeat
our verbal messages.
F. Assumption #3: Intercultural communication necessarily involves a clash of
communicator style.
iii. In fact, the Japanese and some Native American/American Indian tribes
in the United States believe that the expression of relational intimacy is
best accomplished nonverbally.
iv. In the United States, people value, and employ, a direct and personal style
of verbal communication.
v. Many cultures, however, prefer an indirect and impersonal communication
style.
vi. In these cultures, there is no need to articulate every message. True
understanding is implicit, coming not from words but from actions in the
environment, where speakers provide only hints or insinuations.
G. Assumption #4: Initial intercultural communication is a group phenomenon
experienced by individuals.
i. We do not see the person; we see the groups to which the person belongs.
ii. The problem with this is that group data may not be a reliable source on
which to construct our messages.
H. Assumption #5: Intercultural communication is a cycle of stress, adaptation, and
growth.
i. During intercultural communication, we have to learn to adapt and adjust
our communication style.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
VI. The Ethics of Intercultural Communication
A. Ethics involve judgments about what is right and wrong in the course of human
conduct.
C. Ethics are not synonymous with whatever is legal.
i. While legal codes integrate ethical standards into laws that guide and
control the behavior of citizens, they may not necessarily be ethical.
D. Although some scholars distinguish between ethics and morals, we will treat the
two terms interchangeably.
E. Ethics become salient (i.e., particularly relevant) whenever human behavior and
decision-making are conscious, voluntary, and impact others.
F. Intercultural communication takes on a necessary ethical dynamic because
communication is a conscious, voluntary act that influences others.
G. In any culture, food serves a communicative function:
H. The Five Approaches to Determining Which Behaviors Are Ethical
i. Metaethics: Whether the same ethical principles apply to all cultures.
ii. Cultural relativism: Whether unique ethical standards apply to each culture
individually.
iii. The Utilitarian Approach:
a. Sometimes called utilitarianism, posits that ethical actions are those
that provide the greatest balance of good over evil.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
d. This approach is called utilitarianism because it emphasizes the
consequences of actions on the well- being, that is, the utility of all
persons directly or indirectly benefiting from or harmed by the act.
iv. The Rights Approach:
a. Focuses on an individual’s right to choose for herself or himself.
b. Advocates of a rights approach maintain that humans are distinct
from other living beings on the planet because they have the free
will to choose their course of action and that such free will leads to
dignity.
f. Thus, in this view, acts are ethical to the extent that they respect the
rights of others.
g. Acts are wrong to the extent that they violate the rights of others.
v. The Fairness or Social Justice Approach:
a. The fairness or social justice approach is based on the Aristotelian
dictum that “equals should be treated equally and unequals
unequally.”
b. In this case, the ethical question is whether an act treats everyone in
the same way or whether it shows favoritism and/or discrimination,
that is, treats some unequally.
vi. The Common Good Approach:
a. The common good approach is based on the idea that community
life is, in and of itself, good and that people within the community
and their subsequent actions should contribute to the community
good.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
b. This approach has a more societal orientation than does
utilitarianism in that it emphasizes that one’s actions affect
everyone’s welfare, including a society’s system of just laws,
public safety, affordable health care, an effective education system,
a clean environment, and even public recreation areas.
vii. The Virtues Approach:
a. The virtues approach asserts the idea that there are certain ideals,
principles, or standards (i.e., virtues) toward which every
individual should strive to reach his or her highest potential.
Individuals realize such virtues through conscious reflection on
what kinds of people they have the potential to become.
b. Virtues such as truth, beauty, honesty, courage, compassion,
generosity, tolerance, love, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control,
and prudence are encouraged.
I. The Ethical Principles of Eastern Cultures
i. Robert Shuter asserts that many of the fundamental tenets of those five
approaches are, in fact, not a part of the ethics that guide many Eastern
cultures.
ii. Confucianism:
a. Prescribes an ethical and philosophical scheme of living developed
from the writings of Confucius.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
d. Within these five virtues is the recurring theme that humans are
defined by their obedience to their place in the social hierarchy of
relationships.
e. By definition, social hierarchies rank order people and prescribe
rules for proper conduct within each level of the hierarchy.
iii. Hinduism:
a. Polytheistic;
b. Hinduism is practice based rather than faith based, which means
that social practices are more important than beliefs.
c. Hindus believe in the reincarnation of the soul, which is rebirth after
death.
f. Eventually, the soul will achieve Moksha, or salvation, and stop the
cycle of rebirths to become a part of the absolute soul.
g. The four main objectives or aims of life include Dharma, or
righteousness; Artha, or wealth; Kama, or desire; and Moksha, or
salvation.
h. Hinduism practices a social-ordering hierarchical system (i.e., a
caste) in which people are ranked.
i. Hinduism prescribes strict rules and regulations about how one is to
act within one’s caste level.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
demeaning and polluting by the upper caste, such as
barbers, hairdressers, or cleaners. The untouchable Sudras
are considered spiritually polluting and perform jobs such
as garbage collecting.
VII. The Goal: Intercultural Communication Competence
A. Intercultural communication competence: The ability to adapt one’s verbal and
nonverbal messages to the appropriate cultural context.
B. When you communicate with someone from a different culture, to be
interculturally competent you will have to adjust and modify the kinds of verbal
C. Verbal and nonverbal appropriateness and effectiveness are two important
qualities of intercultural competence.
D. Appropriate behaviors conform to the rules, norms, and expectancies of the
cultural context, according to Brian Spitzberg.
i. Effective behaviors are those that successfully perform and accomplish the
rules and norms.
E. An Integrated Model and Measure of Intercultural Communication Competence
i. Arasaratnam maintains that being a competent intercultural communicator
involves knowing about other cultures, having an approach tendency, and
applying appropriate and effective communication behaviors.
ii. Arasaratnam believes that effective and appropriate behavior can be best
judged and determined from the perspectives of both the communicator
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
enacting the behavior and the other person with whom intercultural
communication occurs.
iv. Arasaratnam and Marya Doerfel’s research:
a. Wanted to identify those traits in competent intercultural
interactants that transcend the cultural context and cultural identity.
b. Discovered that those who were identified as competent
intercultural communicators possessed five qualities in common:
(a) empathy, (b) intercultural experience/training, (c) approach
tendencies, (d) a global attitude, and (e) listening skills.
• Empathy involves the extent to which one can infer the
cognitions and motivations of another. Complete empathy
is probably impossible. Here, empathy also includes the
ability to sense, accurately perceive, and appropriately
respond to one’s personal, interpersonal, and social
environment.
• Approach tendencies involve the individual’s interest in and
effort to talk, understand, and extend help. This includes
the anticipation of or actual engagement in intercultural
communication. Intercultural experience and training
involve the actual study of intercultural communication.
c. Arrived at these five characteristics via interviews with persons
from 15 different countries who were asked to describe a
competent intercultural communicator.
Instructor Resource
Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 8e
SAGE Publishing, 2021
d. Based on these five characteristics, Arasaratnam developed a scale
designed to measure one’s intercultural communication
competence.