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Effective transfer of training meets two conditions:
• The trainees can take the material learned in training and apply it to the job
context in which they work.
• Employees maintain their use of the learned material over time.
skills are to remain.
Finally, accountability helps transfer training from class to job. Accountability is the
extent to which someone expects the learner to use the new skills on the job and holds
them responsible for doing so. It may require supervisory praise for doing the task
correctly and sanctions for not showing proper trained behavior, but making people
accountable for their own trained behavior is effective.
VI. Training Delivery
Once training has been designed, the actual delivery of training can begin. Regardless of
the type of training done, many approaches and methods can be used to deliver it. The
growth of training technology continues to expand the available choices (Figure 8-7).
Whatever the approach used, a variety of considerations must be balanced when selecting
training delivery methods. The common variables considered are the following:
• Nature of training
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• Completion timeline
Further, training can be formal or informal. Formal training is very visible because it
consists of planned learning activities. Informal training takes place when learning may not
be the primary focus, but it occurs anyway. Informal learning may be the result of self-
initiated effort or simply serendipitous, but it often occurs as needed.
A. Internal Training
Internal training generally applies very specifically to the organization and its jobs.
Such training is popular because it saves the cost of sending employees away and often
Informal Training
One internal source of instruction is informal training, which occurs through
interactions and feedback among employees. Much of what employees know about
their jobs they learn informally from asking questions and getting advice from other
employees and their supervisors, rather than from formal training programs.
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design.
On-the-Job Training
The most common type of training at all levels in an organization is on-the-job
training (OJT) because it is flexible and relevant to what employees do. Well-
planned and well-executed OJT can be very effective. OJT, which is designed on the
basis of a guided form of training known as job instruction training (JIT), is most
effective if a logical progression of stages is used (Figure 8-8). In contrast with
Cross Training
Cross training occurs when people are trained to do more than one job—theirs and
someone else’s. For the employer, the advantages of cross training are flexibility and
development. Even though cross training is attractive to the employer, it is not
always appreciated by employees, who may feel that it requires them to do more
work for the same pay. To counteract such responses and to make it more appealing
B. External Training
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External training, or training that takes place outside the employing organization, is
used extensively by organizations of all sizes. Large organizations use external training
if they lack the capability to train people internally or when many people need to be
trained quickly. External training may be the best option for training in smaller firms
because of limitations in the size of their training staffs and in the number of employees
who need various types of specialized training. Whatever the size of the organization,
external training occurs for several reasons:
• It may be less expensive for an employer to have an outside trainer conduct
training in areas where internal training resources are limited.
Outsourcing of Training
Many employers of all sizes outsource training to external training firms,
consultants, and other entities. Perhaps one-third of training expenditures go to
outside training sources. The reasons more outside training is not used may be cost
concerns, and a greater emphasis on internal linking of training to organizational
strategies.
Government-Supported Job Training
Federal, state, and local governments provide a wide range of external training
assistance and funding. The Workforce Investment Act (WIA) provides states with
block grant programs that target adult education, disadvantaged youth, and training
employees. Employers hiring and training individuals who meet the WIA criteria
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Educational Assistance Programs
Some employers pay for additional education for their employees. Typically, the
employee pays for a course that applies to a college degree and is reimbursed upon
successful completion of the course. The amounts paid by the employer are
considered nontaxable income for the employee up to amounts set by federal laws.
C. Combination Training Approaches
Whether training is delivered internally or externally, appropriate training must be
chosen.
Cooperative/Apprentice Training
Cooperative training approaches mix classroom training and on-the-job experiences.
This training can take several forms. One form, generally referred to as school-to–
work transition, helps individuals move into jobs while still in school or upon
completion of formal schooling. Such efforts may be arranged with high schools,
community colleges, or some universities.
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D. E-Learning: Online Training
E-learning is use of a Web-based technology to conduct training online. E-learning is
popular with employers. The major reasons are cost savings and access to more
employees. Training conducted with some kind of learning technology is likely to
continue to increase.
Distance Training/Learning
Many college and university classes use some form of Internet-based course support.
Hundreds of college professors use various packages to make their lecture content
available to students. These packages enable virtual chat and electronic file exchange
among course participants and enhance instructor-student contact.
Simulations and Games
Computer-based training involves a wide array of multimedia technologies—
including sound, motion (video and animation), graphics, and hypertext—to tap
multiple learner senses. Computer-supported simulations within e-learning can
replicate the psychological and behavioral requirements of a task, often in addition to
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From highly complicated systems that replicate difficult landing scenarios for pilots
to programs that help medical trainees learn to sew sutures, simulations allow for
safe training when the risks associated with failure are high. The safety training
simulation reduces such accidents.
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Mobile Learning
Predictions have been that training will incorporate more use of mobile devices such
as smartphones, tablets, or netbooks. However, barriers to mobile learning include
budget restrictions, integrating this technology with existing training, and security
concerns. But while the physical classroom, Webinars, and formal e-learning courses
are not going away, mobile learning too is on the rise. Some current ways mobile
devices can be used in training include the following:
HR Perspective: Using Games to Stimulate Learning in Organizations
Games can be created to present players with the same challenges they will face on the
job. Rules of engagement, player interactivity, and communication can be used to
manage outcomes that can be quantified. An advantage with games is that the activities
can be conducted either in an online environment with computer-generated characters
and contexts or in a real-time, face-to-face situation where trainees interact directly.
The downside to games is that they are difficult to create and take time and money
to develop. Additionally, the rules, actions, and playing environments of games all
require considerable attention to detail, and the actual time that needs to be
invested in playing games can be significant.
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mobile devices turning classrooms into blended learning.
It may be that learners like this technology as it creates more learner control over the
learning process.
Blended Learning
As learning and work merge even more closely in the future, technology is likely to
integrate seamlessly into the work environment of more employees. However, e-
learning does not work well as the sole method of training, according to many
Advantages and Disadvantages of E-Learning
The rapid growth of e-learning makes the Internet or an intranet a viable means for
delivering training content. But e-learning has both advantages and disadvantages
VII. Training Evaluation
Evaluation of training compares the post-training results to the pre-training objectives of
managers, trainers, and trainees. Because training is both time consuming and costly, it
should be evaluated.
A. Levels of Evaluation
It is best to consider how training is to be evaluated before it begins. Donald Kirkpatrick
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Reaction
Organizations evaluate the reaction levels of trainees by conducting interviews with
or administering questionnaires to the trainees. A reaction-level measure could be
Learning
Learning levels can be evaluated by measuring how well trainees have learned facts,
ideas, concepts, theories, and attitudes. Tests on the training material are commonly
Behaviors
Evaluating training at the behavioral level means measuring the effect of training on
job performance through observing job performance.
Results
Employers evaluate results by measuring the effect of training on the achievement of
organizational objectives. Because results such as productivity, turnover, quality,
B. Training Evaluation Metrics
Training is expensive and it is an HR function that requires measurement and
monitoring. Cost-benefit analysis and return-on-investment (ROI) analysis are
commonly used to measure training results, as are various benchmarking approaches.
Cost-Benefit Analysis
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Training results can be evaluated through cost-benefit analysis, which is comparison
of costs and benefits associated with the training. There are four stages in calculating
training costs and benefits:
• Determine training costs—consider direct costs such as design, trainer fees,
materials, facilities, and other administration activities
Return-on-Investment Analysis and Benchmarking
In organizations, training is often expected to produce an ROI. Still, too often,
training is justified because someone liked it, rather than on the basis of resource
accountability. ROI simply divides the return produced because of the training by the
cost (or investment) of the training.
C. Training Evaluation Designs
With or without benchmarking data, internal evaluations of training programs can be
designed in many ways. The rigor of the three designs discussed next increases with
each level.
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Post-Measure
The most obvious way to evaluate training effectiveness is to determine performance
after the training whether the employees can perform the way management wants
them to perform. Tests after training do not always clearly indicate whether a
performance is a result of the training or could have been achieved without the
training.
Pre-/Post-Measure
will indicate whether the training made any difference.
Pre/Post-Measure with a Control Group
In addition to testing the representatives who will be trained, managers can test
Critical Thinking Challenges
1. Identify training needs for a group of new salespeople in a high-end jewelry store.
The students should begin with a study of the organization as a complete system. The
existing knowledge, skills, and abilities of present employees need to be recognized.
2. Why is evaluating training an important part of strategic training?
Training represents a significant expenditure of time and money in most organizations.
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Strategic training enables HR to get involved with the business, partner with operating
managers to help solve their problems, and make significant contributions to
organizational results. It also may prevent trainers from chasing fads or the latest type
3. Develop an orientation checklist on the basis of one first-day session and a second
session of four hours 30 days later.
Employees should include topics that deal with the organization overall (history,
products/services, organization structure, culture, etc.), with specific HR policies and
4. Make a briefing for division managers showing the advantages and disadvantages of e-
learning and how to “blend” it with other teaching techniques. Use websites, including
Most students will refer to the information in the text (Figure 8-10):
Advantages:
• Is self-paced; trainees can proceed on their own time
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5. Because of rapid growth of your technology company, the executive team has asked
HR to develop an internal training program. The purpose of the program is to help
employees recently promoted to supervisory positions develop the leadership skill sets
they need to be successful as supervisors. This will be the first formal training
program for your small company. As part of the process, you want to consider the
learning styles of the new supervisors. To assist you in developing a successful,
results-oriented program, review various training websites, including
A. To meet the needs of the varied learning styles and maximize the learning
potential of the participants, what training techniques should be implemented?
Case
Using Performance Support to Improve Learning
1. The case introduces a rather complex information-based approach to encourage
learning on the job. How is this approach different from traditional training? Are there
any similarities?
Information-based approach is a more employee-centered learning framework. Such a
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2. How would you implement a Performance Support system?
Performance Support systems can be implemented as a way to make the learning
occur in a more fluid fashion. The system should be managed so that the appropriate
3. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with a Performance Support
informational network with regard to individual learning?
The challenges and opportunities associated with a Performance Support informational
network may include employees’ low interest in formal training, an increase in calls to
Supplemental Cases
Training Crucial for Hotels
This case illustrates the increased role training is playing in large U.S. hotel chains. (For
1. Discuss how these hotels are using a strategic and performance consulting approach to
developing training efforts.
The framework for developing a strategic training plan contains four major stages
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2. Identify how the effectiveness of Ritz-Carlton’s Mystique program might be measured
several years later.
It is important to measure effectiveness of training so that there is always continuous
improvement of it. Content as well as delivery method and frequency are all areas that
New Payroll Clerk
This case shows the frustration that often accompanies the first day at work, and why
orientation is important in reducing turnover. (For the case, go to
Questions
1. What problems can you identify with the orientation activities experienced by Irene?
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In a small organization without an HR department, the new employee’s supervisor or
manager usually assumes most of the responsibility for orientation. Similarly in
2. How would you make changes in the orientation process? What changes would you
make?
Students’ answers may vary. However, the following points can be covered:
Comments
This case represents an all too common occurrence—unplanned and poorly handled
orientation. The personnel assistant will be quite lucky if Irene remembers one-third of
what was explained. In addition, the lack of an escort to the department further created the
image of a cold and impersonal firm.
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Twenty-First Century Onboarding
This case outlines orientation efforts of Sun Microsystems, El Paso Corporation, and
1. The case introduces three companies of very different sizes. What differences do you
see in their approaches? What similarities?
The three companies are Sun Microsystems (34,000 employees), Zimmerman
2. Are there important things missing from all three approaches? If so, what are they?
Since students are not given all of the details on all three orientations, students might
3. Which approach sounds best to you? Why?
This answer will vary with the students. Many younger students might really like the