Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
• Team orientation
• Technical expertise
• Results orientation
• Communication effectiveness
approach may be more broadly focused on behaviors, rather than just on tasks, duties,
and responsibilities. Some of the more comprehensive competency-based job analysis
components may extensively include knowledge, skills, abilities, and personality
characteristics.
Integrating Technology and Competency-Based Job Analysis
As jobs continue to change, technology expands, and workers become more diverse,
it may be that there will be a more integrated use of both job analysis approaches.
V. Implementing Job Analysis
The process of job analysis must be conducted in a logical manner, following appropriate
management and professional psychometric practices. Analysts usually follow a multistage
process, regardless of the specific job analysis methods used. The stages for a typical job
analysis, as outlined in Figure 4-11, may vary somewhat with the number of jobs included.
A. Planning the Job Analysis
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
B. Preparing for and Introducing the Job Analysis
Preparation for job analysis includes identification of the jobs to be analyzed. Next
reviewing organization charts, existing job descriptions, previous job analysis
C. Conducting the Job Analysis
If questionnaires are used, it is often helpful to have employees return them to
supervisors or managers for review before giving them back to those conducting the job
D. Developing Job Descriptions and Job Specifications
At this stage, the job analysts draft job descriptions and job specifications. Generally,
organizations find that having managers and employees write job descriptions is not
recommended for several reasons:
• It reduces consistency in format and details, both of which are important given the
legal consequences of job descriptions.
E. Maintaining and Updating Job Descriptions and Job Specifications
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
VI. Job Analysis Methods
Job analysis information about what people are doing in their jobs can be gathered in a
variety of ways. Traditionally the most common methods have been:
• Observation
A. Observation
With the observation method, a manager, job analyst, or industrial engineer watches an
employee performing the job and takes notes to describe the tasks and duties performed.
Use of the observation method is limited because many jobs do not have complete and
easily observed job duties or job cycles. Observation may be more useful for repetitive
jobs and in conjunction with other methods or as a way to verify information.
Work Sampling
Employee Diary/Log
Another observation method requires employees to “observe” their own performance
by keeping a diary/log of their job duties, noting how frequently those duties are
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
B. Interviewing
The interview method requires a manager or an HR specialist to talk with the employees
performing each job. A standardized interview form is used most often to record the
information. Both the employee and the employee’s supervisor must be interviewed to
obtain complete details on the job.
C. Questionnaires
The questionnaire is a widely used method of gathering data on jobs. A survey
instrument is developed and given to employees and managers to complete. The typical
job questionnaire often covers the areas shown in Figure 4-12.
Position Analysis Questionnaire
The Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a specialized instrument that
incorporates checklists. Each job is analyzed on 27 dimensions composed of 187
“elements.” The PAQ has a number of divisions, each containing numerous job
elements.
Managerial Job Analysis Questionnaire
Because managerial jobs often differ from jobs with more clearly observable routines
and procedures, some specialized job analysis methods exist for management jobs.
One well-known method is the Management Position Description Questionnaire
(MPDQ). Comprised of more than 200 statements, the MPDQ examines a variety of
managerial dimensions, including decision making and supervising.
D. Job Analysis and O*Net
A variety of resources to help with job analysis are available from the U.S. Department
of Labor (DOL). These resources have been developed and used over many years by a
Since the recent expansion of the O*Net databases for employers, this resource contains
data on more than 800 occupations, classified by industry. Included in the occupational
categories are the following:
• Task statements of importance, relevance, and frequency
• Abilities (work activities, knowledge, skills, and work content)
• Training, work experiences, and education
VII. Behavioral and Legal Aspects of Job Analysis
Job analysis involves determining what the core job is. A detailed examination of jobs,
although necessary, sometimes can be a demanding and disruptive experience for both
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
managers and employees, in part because job analysis can identify the difference between
what currently is being performed in a job and what should be done. This is a major issue
about job analysis for some employees, but it is not the only concern.
A. Current Incumbent Emphasis
A job analysis and the resulting job description and job specifications should not
describe just what the person currently in the job does and that person’s qualifications.
B. “Inflation” of Jobs and Job Titles
People have a tendency to inflate the importance and significance of their jobs. Because
job analysis information is used for compensation purposes, both managers and
employees hope that “puffing up” jobs will result in higher pay levels, greater “status”
for résumés, and more promotional opportunities.
C. Employee and Managerial Anxieties
Both employees and managers have concerns about job analysis. The resulting job
description is supposed to identify what is done in a job. However, it is difficult to
capture all facets of a job in which employees perform a variety of duties and operate
with a high degree of independence.
Employee Fears
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
Managerial Straitjacket
Another concern of managers and supervisors is that the job analysis and job
descriptions will unrealistically limit managerial flexibility. Since workloads and
demands change rapidly, managers and supervisors want to be able to move duties to
D. Legal Aspects of Job Analysis
The Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures make it clear that HR
requirements must be tied to specific job-related factors if employers are to defend their
actions as a business necessity. Job descriptions are frequently the link to these job-
related factors.
Job Analysis and the Americans with Disabilities Act
One result of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is increased emphasis by
employers on conducting job analyses, as well as developing and maintaining current
and accurate job descriptions and job specifications. The ADA requires that
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
Job Analysis and Wage/Hour Regulations
The federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) and most state wage/hour laws
indicate that the percentage of time employees spend on manual, routine, or clerical
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
VIII. Job descriptions and Job Specifications
The output from analysis of a job is used to develop a job description and its job
specifications. Together, these two documents summarize job analysis information in a
readable format and provide the basis for defensible job-related actions.
A. Job Descriptions
HR Skills and Applications: Writing Job Descriptions
• Compose specific duty statements that contain most of the following elements:
o A precise action verb and its object
o The frequency of the duties and the expected outcomes
o The tools, equipment, aids, and processes to be used
• Describe, do not prescribe: Say “Operates electronic imaging machine,” not
“Must know how to operate electronic image machine.” (The latter is a job
specification, not a job description.)
• Be consistent: Define terms like may, occasionally, and periodically.
• Prepare a miscellaneous clause: This clause provides flexibility and may be
phrased as follows: “Performs other related duties as assigned by supervisory
personnel.”
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) an individual needs to perform a job
satisfactorily. KSAs might include the education, experience, work skill requirements,
personal abilities, and mental and physical requirements a person needs to do the job,
not necessarily the current employee’s qualifications.
C. Performance Standards
D. Job Description Components
Identification
The first part of the job description is the identification section, in which the job title,
department, reporting relationships, location, and date of analysis may be given.
Additional items commonly noted in the identification section are job code, pay
grade, exempt/nonexempt status under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), and the
EEOC classification (from the EEO-1 form).
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
The next portion of the job description gives the qualifications needed to perform the
job satisfactorily. The job specifications typically are stated as:
• Knowledge, skills, and abilities
• Education and experience
• Physical requirements and/or working conditions
Critical Thinking Challenges
1. Describe how changes in the workforce have been impacting organizations, including
organizations for which you have worked recently.
Students might discuss specific types of diversity related to the following:
• Race/ethnicity
• National origin
2. For many individuals, the nature of work and jobs is changing. Describe these
changes, some reasons for them, and how they are affecting both HR management and
individuals.
Some of the reasons for changes in work and jobs are globalization of workers
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
3. Explain how you would conduct a job analysis in a company that has never had job
descriptions. Utilize the O*Net as a resource for your information.
Students should refer to the five-step process identified below. However, their
responses should consider preliminary steps to achieve acceptance of job analysis by
employees. A key element in this preparatory step is calming employee anxieties that
4. You have recently assumed the role of HR Manager in your company. In reviewing
the company records, you note that the job descriptions were last updated five years
ago. The Company President has taken the position that there is no need to update the
job descriptions. However, you also note that the company has grown by 50% during
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
A. How can job descriptions be used as a management tool?
Students’ answers might include various ways that job descriptions can be
used as a management tool. Job descriptions can be used to help recruit and
B. What role do job descriptions have in helping companies comply with
various legal issues?
Job descriptions are important documents that have been used in lawsuits
Case
Bon Secours Health Care
1. How well could this level of flexible scheduling work in another industry? For
example, a steel mill?
Students’ answers may differ. However, students can include the following points
in their responses:
2. Identify other potential flexible work ideas that Bon Secours might use.
Students’ answers may vary. However, they can use the following points to include in
their responses:
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
3. Flexible scheduling is common in health care. What would be the likely result without
it?
Students’ answers may vary. Due to the recent shortage in the healthcare workforce, it
Supplemental Cases
The Reluctant Receptionist
This case illustrates how incomplete job analysis and job descriptions create both
Questions
1. Why did the absence of accurate job information create problems?
Student answers may vary. The job description based on which Virginia accepted the
job was misrepresented to her. Since Frederick did not have a properly chalked out job
2. To prevent future problems, what content should be in a job description for the HR
assistant?
Student answers may vary. In future, Frederick should have a properly documented
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
Comments
The importance of job descriptions and job specifications is highlighted in this case. Lack
of a prepared job description has led to the firm’s losing an employee after only a short
time because the HR director misrepresented the job. By seeing a job description, an
applicant can gain a more accurate picture of the expectations associated with a job.
Preparation of a job description would also provide the basis for developing a clear job
specification that the HR manager could use in recruiting, selecting, and training an HR
assistant.
Jobs and Work at R.R. Donnelley
This case describes how a printing firm had to increase productivity and redesign jobs.
1. Discuss why Donnelley had to coordinate HR activities with the changes in jobs and
work.
Donnelley had to coordinate HR activities with the changes in jobs and work because
2. Identify examples of how technology has changed jobs where you have worked and
what HR activities were handled well and poorly.
Students will probably describe situations where automation of some procedures was
Flexible Work and Success at Best Buy
This case illustrates flexible scheduling at Best Buy (For the case, go to
Chapter 4: Workforces, Jobs, and Job Analysis
1. Discuss how a ROWE-type program would fit in organizations where you have
worked. Explain why it would work or would not work.
Students’ work experiences will vary but students might mention factors such as a lack
2. Identify factors in the ROWE program that might make using it for retail employees
more difficult than using it for managers and employees in corporate offices, technical
centers, and non-retail jobs and locations.