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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
Chapter 4
Blacks/African Americans
Table of Contents
Content
Page No. in the IM
Chapter Outline
1
Chapter Objectives
1
Lecture Notes and Teaching Suggestions
2
Key Facts (and Associated Questions)
3
as Discussion Points
Questions to Consider (End of Chapter)
10
Actions and Exercises
14
Additional Information
18
Suggested Readings
18
Suggested Videos
19
Suggested Test Questions
20
Chapter Outline
1. Introduction and Overview
2. History of Blacks in the United States
4. Population
6. Research on the Employment Experiences of African Americans
8. Summary
10. Questions to Consider
11. Actions and Exercises
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, readers should have a greater understanding of Blacks and
diversity in organizations. Specifically, they should be able to:
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
• be aware of the historical background and current status of Blacks.
• be able to discuss participation rates, employment, and income levels of Blacks.
• examine differences in earnings by education level among Blacks and other racial
and ethnic groups.
Lecture Notes and Teaching Suggestions
This chapter focuses on Blacks as a particular racial group relevant to diversity in
organizations. Blacks are integral to the study of diversity in the U.S., given their unique
position as descendants of slaves and the uniquely persistent individual, institutional, and
societal discrimination Blacks have faced and continue to face. Instructors should
emphasize that the original intent of Title VII was to assist Blacks in gaining some
employment-related rights.
The chapter begins with some historical background of Blacks in the U.S., and it provides
comparisons of the experiences of Blacks with the experiences of Whites as indentured
servants. Discrimination of Blacks continues through the end of slavery into the 20th
Discrimination lawsuits and research studies provide evidence of continued disparate
treatment and the need for continued diversity efforts. As with previous chapters,
instructors should also strongly emphasize to students that most people who experience
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
Key Facts (and Associated Questions)
Questions following each “Key Fact” are helpful in stimulating class discussion.
(Selected key facts include discussion points in this Instructors’ Manual. Instructors may
choose different ones to emphasize depending on the needs or interests of students and
instructors). Instructors may wish to have students formulate questions of their own
relevant to the key facts and use them for class discussion.
• Title VII’s legal prohibitions against discrimination have existed for about fifty
years, compared with the nearly 350 years of slavery and legally sanctioned
discrimination in the United States.
Questions: Do you think discrimination against Blacks still exists today despite
Title VII’s legal prohibitions? Why? What do you think should be done to
terminate Black discrimination?
Students should cite examples of Black discrimination that they have come across.
These could shed light on the various forms of discrimination still faced by Blacks
• Stereotyping, discrimination, and aversive racism continue to affect Black
applicants, employees, and customers.
Question: Why do Black men earn more than Black women at all educational
levels?
Black women with college degrees earn less than Black men with college degrees.
The difference for women emphasizes how important it can be for a Black woman
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
• Although more educated than ever before, African Americans remain more likely to
be unemployed than comparably educated Whites, at all educational levels.
Questions: What can explain racial differences in rates of return on educational
investment? Is obtaining a college degree still a worthwhile investment for Blacks?
Stereotypes, job placement (e.g., line versus staff), type of organization, promotion
• Education increases employment and earnings and decreases the likelihood of
unemployment of Blacks.
Questions: Do you think that the unemployment rate of Blacks would decrease as
Black men and women increase their level of education? Why or why not?
Not all Blacks can afford to increase their level of education. Some of them have to
earn for their dependents. Although the levels of education, employment, and
• Black women have higher workforce participation rates than White women, but
White men have higher participation rates than Black men.
Questions: Why are Black women’s workforce participation rates higher than
White women’s? Why are perceptions that Black women do not work (e.g., welfare
mothers) so prevalent? Why are Black men’s participation rates so much less than
White men’s?
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
• The Black population is younger than the overall population; there will be more
Blacks in the labor force in the future, making efforts to include and value their
contributions increasingly important.
Question: Why do you think the Black population is younger than the overall
population?
Shorter life expectancy, a slightly higher birth rate, crime, poverty, and less access
to health care for Blacks are some of the factors that contribute to the age
Selected Items for Instructors’ Consideration as Discussion
Points
1. Table 4.3: Unemployment Level by Educational Attainment by Race (2012, 2013)
(Percent of Population 25 and Over)
This table presents the unemployment level by educational attainment and race.
Instructors may wish to assign this table to students to analyze and document patterns that
the table depicts. From this table, students should notice the following:
• The total reported figures are understated, due to reporting methodology, and do not
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
2. Focal Issue 4.1: Differences in Black/White Accumulation of Wealth: Effects of
Slavery and Generations of Discrimination
Instructors should discuss this feature with Table 4.4 as it is useful for reinforcing the
differences between the earning levels of Blacks and Whites. Instructors should also
Questions to Consider:
1. Prior to reading this section, had you considered the effects of slavery and
subsequent continued discrimination on the ability of (a) Blacks and (b) Whites to
inherit and earn wealth, savings, and property?
2. What factors may affect the higher rejection rates of equally creditworthy Blacks
for business and home loans?
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
3. Why might realtors steer Blacks to certain neighborhoods?
4. What organizational steps can banks, mortgage companies, and realtors take to
ensure they do not perpetrate credit and housing discrimination?
3. Individual Feature 4.1: Barack Obama, 44th President of the United States
Questions to Consider:
1. What does President Obama’s self-identification and widespread recognition as
Black say about race and Blackness in America?
2. Is the election of President Obama evidence of a “post racial” America? If so, why?
If not, what would be evidence of a “post racial” America?
3. Aside from the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act, what are some diversity-related
measures (laws, appointments, etc.) that occurred since President Obama was first
elected in 2008?
4. Table 4.4: Mean Total Money Earnings of Workers 18 Years and Over by
Educational Attainment, Race, Hispanic Origin, and Sex: 2012
Table 4.4 presents the mean total money earnings by educational attainment. Importantly,
the table shows how differences exist even at the same educational level (differences in
educational return on investment).
Students should notice the disparities between the following groups of people:
• Non-Hispanic Whites and Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians
• Men and women within a particular racial/ethnic group
• Income for “all races male” and “all races female”
Instructors should emphasize the following:
• The importance of not assuming that mean total money earnings reported in the
press applies to all groups.
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
5. Research Summary 4.2: Why Pay More? Race and Sex Discrimination in New
Car Pricing
Questions to Consider:
1. If the results of this study, with dealers’ names and identification, were to be
released to the public, what would the likely outcome be for those dealers? How
might competing dealerships capitalize on such a disclosure?
Students’ answers will vary. If such details were released to the public, the most
2. What can individual dealers do to avoid customer discrimination, given the need to
maximize profit? Is a profit-maximization strategy consistent with discriminatory
dealer behavior in the long term?
Students’ answers will vary. Dealers must keep in mind that retaining customers for
3. If such discrimination in large purchases is common, what are the short- and long–
term economic effects likely to be for Blacks and White women, who earn less than
White men, and for Black families, which earn less than White families?
Students’ answers will vary. Students might suggest that Blacks would end up
6. Individual Feature 4.2: Regina Benjamin, M.D., M.B.A., and U.S. Surgeon
General
Questions to Consider:
1. Dr. Benjamin has amassed many “firsts.” What do these firsts mean for people
similar to and different from Benjamin?
Students’ answers will vary. Students may suggest that these “firsts” indicate the
2. Benjamin attended some historically Black universities (HBCUs) as well as some
predominantly White institutions (PWIs). Critics have argued that there is no longer
a need for HBCUs. Are their claims valid? Why or why not?
Students’ answers will vary. Students might suggest that discrimination still exists
Questions to Consider (End of Chapter)
1. What factor(s) caused the experiences of European and African newcomers to the
United States in the period from the 1600s through the 1800s to be so different?
2. What does empirical research say about access and treatment discrimination against
Blacks?
3. In Brief’s empirical study of “new racism,” unqualified Whites were preferred over
qualified Blacks. What role might pervasive stereotypes about Blacks play in
decision-makers’ failure to promote clearly qualified Blacks, even those who have
been working for organizations for a while and have demonstrated their
competencies? What can be done about this?
Pervasive stereotypes probably play an important role in decision-makers’ failure to
promote clearly qualified Blacks who have been working for a company for a
4a. In the Bertrand and Mullainathan study of name-based discrimination, job
applicants with “Black–sounding” names were granted interviews significantly
fewer times than those with “White–sounding” names. Speculate on what might
happen to a Black applicant who had a “White–sounding” name and was called for
an interview. At what point(s) might prejudice eliminate the applicant from the
selection process? What benefit(s) might accrue to such an applicant from being
called for the interview? What are some specific things that organizations might do
to reduce the likelihood of name-based discrimination in the selection process?
How would they know if these steps were working?
A Black applicant with a “White–sounding” name, such as Laurie, might surprise
the interviewer. She might also interview with multiple people, and thus be able to
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
4b. Do you know any Blacks with any of the “White–sounding” names used in the
study or others more commonly associated with Whites? Do you know of any
Whites with any of the “Black–sounding” names used in the study or others more
commonly associated with Blacks? Discuss their interview and employment
experiences with them.
Black students with “White–sounding” names sometimes share stories of surprised
5a. How do you think most African American customers respond when treated unfairly
in a store (for example, being passed over for service)? If an African American
customer were to complain to store management about disparate treatment by an
employee, what would you suggest the manager do to retain the customer? How
should the manager respond to the employee?
Students’ answers will vary. Some customers may complain or state that they were
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
5b. How do you think most White customers would respond if they were served before
Black customers who had arrived first in a store or restaurant? Would the White
customers notice that the Black customers had been skipped? What would they do?
How would they react if the Black customer complained? Have you observed (or
experienced) such an event?
6. What is the racial and ethnic composition of the U.S. Army, Air Force, Navy, and
Marines? How many Blacks as a proportion of the Army are in officer positions?
Choose one other military organization and answer the same question.
7. How can underemployment affect the quality of a person’s future employment?
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
Explain.
Underemployment can lead to loss of self-esteem, depression, and discouragement
Actions and Exercises
1. Observe employment of African Americans in your community in a particular place
(such as a store, restaurant, office) in which there are also employees of other racial
and ethnic backgrounds. What do you observe that is relevant to diversity in
organizations?
In a discount store, students may observe many Black (and others of color) cashiers
2. Conduct library or Internet research on the negative effects of discrimination on the
health and well-being of African Americans. What does this research say about this
relationship? What can individual Blacks do to minimize these health effects?
3. Use a calculator to make a chart projecting the effects of discrimination in initial
salaries offered to Blacks and Whites and annual salary increases for two equally
qualified, college-educated new hires.
This is a fascinating example of how discrimination in compensation can grow over
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
a. Make columns for starting salaries of $30,000 and $33,000, respectively, for
the new employees. Assume the Black applicant earns a 4% increase per year,
and the White applicant earns a 6% increase per year, based on their
performance evaluations.
1
What are the salary differences after ten years?
After twenty years?
b. Make another column, with the assumption that the White applicant receives
promotions every three years and the Black applicant is promoted every five
years. For promotions, assume a salary increase of an additional 10%. What
are the salary differences after ten and twenty years given the differences in
initial salaries, in increases, and in promotion rates?
c. What effects would such salary disparities have on each employee’s and the
employer’s contributions to the employees’ social security, tax-deferred
savings plans, and retirement plans?
These effects would be significant, given about 15% contributions to social
security, various amounts of contributions to 401k/TDSPs, and retirement
based on income.
Scenario
1
Black
4%
Scenario 2
Promotions
White
6%
(10% 3
years)
Year
30000
Year
33000
1
31200
1
34980
2
32448
2
37079
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
7
39478
7
53435
8
41057
8
56641
9
42699
9
60040
10
44407
10
66044
11
46184
11
70007
12
48031
12
74207
13
49952
13
81628
14
51950
14
86525
15
54028
15
91717
16
56189
16
97220
17
58437
17
106942
18
60774
18
113358
19
63205
19
120160
20
65734
20
132176
d. Research Summary 4.2 “Why pay more? Race (and Gender) Discrimination
in Buying a New Car” considers effects of discrimination against Blacks in
car pricing. Speculate on the effects of lower initial starting salaries, lower
salary increases, and fewer promotions, combined with high prices for
consumer goods, mortgages, and insurance on a person’s ability to increase
wealth.
4. For your private consideration, make a list of at least five common stereotypes
about African Americans.
a. Beside each stereotype, write the name of a real African American who does
not fit this stereotype. Look first among friends, family members, or yourself
if applicable. If you cannot think of a person you know, use a public figure or
celebrity.
Students’ answers will vary. Students may write many stereotypes referring
to African Americans, such as the following:
• African Americans love eating fried chicken.
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
b. Beside each common stereotype about African Americans, write the name of
a real person, preferably one you know, who is not African American who
has exhibited the stereotyped characteristic.
c. How many times did you use a friend, family member, or yourself, if
applicable, instead of a public figure or celebrity? What is the effect in
addressing stereotypes of knowing someone personally, and somewhat well,
who is African American? How conscious of an effort would one have to
make to avoid behaving on the basis of these stereotypes?
Students’ answers will vary. Students might have used the names of friends,
family members, or themselves more than that of celebrities or public figures.
5. Go to the EEOC Web site (www.eeoc.gov) to find current press releases involving
access and treatment discrimination against Blacks. Assuming you are a powerful
manager hired by the CEO, implement a plan at the offending organization to
prevent this kind of thing from happening in the future. Provide at least five
specific steps to be taken and five specific measures of success.
Instructors should discuss the steps of things to be done that help students to gain a
better understanding of how organizations can prevent discrimination. Five specific
steps to prevent discrimination include the following:
• Developing awareness of stereotypes and making efforts to address them
• Attempting to pay attention to only relevant information (and not irrelevant,
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
Five measures of success include the following:
• Employment of Blacks for middle- or top-level management positions
• Promotion of Blacks who are qualified for middle- or top-level management
positions
Additional Information
This chapter introduces, defines, and provides a good foundation for learning about the
concepts of access and treatment discrimination. Instructors should ensure that students
have a good grasp of these concepts as they are relevant to the remaining chapters.
Suggested Readings
Instructors should preview the following books for appropriateness of content to specific
levels, classes, and students.
Moss, P. & Tilly, C. (2001). Stories Employers Tell: Race, Skill, and Hiring in America.
New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Rogers, J. A. (1961). Africa’s gift to America ; the Afro-American in the Making and
Saving of the United States. Distributed by Sportshelf, New Rochelle, NY.
Tatum, B. D. (1997). Why are all the Black Kids Sitting Together in the Cafeteria? New
York. Basic Books.
Waters, M. C. (2001). Black Identities: West Indian Immigrant Dreams and American
Realities. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
Wilson, W. J. (1996). When Work Disappears: The World of the New Urban Poor. New
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
York: Knopf.
Suggested Videos
“A Class Divided” is a classic video of teacher Jane Eliott’s exercise that demonstrated
the painful effects of discrimination, using blue-eyed and brown-eyed elementary school
students.
“True Colors,” is an ABC News video that depicts a young African American man and a
young White man (well-matched), who try to get jobs, obtain housing, and obtain service
in stores. The young White man is welcomed into most places, while the Black man is
told the agency has trouble with people because “they are too lazy to work.” Students will
notice how the woman from the agency looked and may often say she is a “low life
herself” and suggest that this might not happen with higher class people.
This video also shows the young Black man being ignored in department stores while the
young White man was greeted and helped immediately. In another test, both men were in
a store and the Black man, but not the White man, was tailed around the store as if he
were going to steal something. The commentators note that rather than monitoring
Blacks, clerks should monitor suspicious behaviors. One person interviewed notes that
the most common shoplifter is White. Instructors should ask students what is the likely
result of clerks tailing and watching Blacks if Whites are the most likely shoplifters.
The Black salesman ignored the young Black man, too. Ask students to speculate on why
this happened? Instructors could suggest that this could be because of the same life
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Chapter 4: Blacks/African Americans
“Under Suspicion” is a video film that depicts customer discrimination and racial
profiling of Blacks as potential shoplifters. One Black man in the video was shopping in a
large, high-cost retail store and required to strip before his young son to prove that he did
Suggested Test Questions
1. How does the historical background of treatment of Blacks in the United States
affect their current status?
2. Compare the workforce participation rates, employment levels, and income levels
3. Discuss some examples of stereotypes about African-Americans and provide an
example from the chapter of how these negatively affected African-American
employees or applicants. What happened in the case or situation described?
6. What are some individual and organizational recommendations to improve the
experiences, employment, and status of African-Americans in organizations?