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Chapter 3
Classic Motivational Theories
Chapter Overview
The intent of this chapter is to examine what motivates people. Included are discussions
of theoretical literature, empirical research, and some frameworks for integrating both.
Important topics discussed are the Hawthorne Studies, McGregor’s Theory X and Theory
Y, Homans’ Informal Groups, Argyris’ Immaturity-Maturity Theory, Herzberg’s
Motivation-Hygiene Theory, and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, each student should be able to:
1. State three key ideas from the Hawthorne Studies
2. Explain McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Key Terms and Concepts
Hawthorne Studies
Elton Mayo and his associates were called in to assist with worker productivity
experiments at Hawthorne after initial results of the experiments were found to be
unexplainable. Originally, the tests were intended to study optimum physical work
conditions, but surprisingly, the productivity of subjects tended to improve regardless of
whether work conditions were enhanced or made worse.
but provide little satisfaction of esteem and self-actualization needs.
Theory X and Theory Y
Mayo developed the Rabble Hypothesis in his work at Hawthorne. The Rabble
Douglas McGregor expanded on the Rabble Hypothesis in his development of Theory X
– Theory Y. According to McGregor, Theory X organizations and managers assume that
people prefer to be directed, are not interested in assuming responsibility, and that people
want safety above all.
Increasing Interpersonal Competence
Management based on Theory X assumptions is still widely practiced, even though
McGregor and others believe that the level of education and experience the United States
indicate that Theory Y is more appropriate.
Homans’ Informal Work Groups
George C. Homans explored the power of informal work groups and how they influence
the behavior of workgroup members, which in turn influences the level of productivity.
Homans developed a social systems model to help explain the power of informal
workgroups. The social system is made up of three elements:
1. Activities: the tasks that people perform
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jobs in order for them to continue doing them.
Sentiments towards the job become more developed over time and the more positive they
are, the more people will tend to interact with each other. Group members also become
more alike over time and develop norms and expectations about how the group should
Argyris’ Organization Value System
Chris Argyris compares bureaucratic/pyramidal values (Theory X-type organizations)
with humanistic/democratic values (Theory Y-type organizations). He maintains that
Immaturity-Maturity Theory
Argyris postulates that as people develop from infancy to adulthood they move along a
continuum in seven variables:
Passive _____________________________Active
Dependent __________________________Independent
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Theory into Practice
Argyris submits examples that support his belief that classical (Theory X) management
creates childlike roles for employees. In particular, he quotes a manager unknowingly
supervising people with mental retardation and doing unskilled work as reporting that
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
McGregor and Argyris in part inspired Frederick Herzberg’s studies. He set out to
discover what kinds of things made workers unhappy or dissatisfied and what things
Hygiene Factors
These are also called maintenance factors because they are never completely satisfied and
Motivators
Motivators are factors that involve feelings of achievement, professional growth, and
Herzberg and Maslow
Maslow provides help in identifying needs (motives), while Herzberg provides insight
into incentives (goals). Therefore, in a motivating situation when a manager knows what
Essentially, Maslow’s physiological, safety, social, and some esteem needs can be
categorized as hygiene factors, for when they aren’t met, an individual is dissatisfied. The
aspects of Maslow’s esteem needs that are met by recognition or self-actualization,
however, can be classified by Herzberg’s model as motivators in that when they are met,
an individual is satisfied.
Suggested Teaching Approaches
Activities
1. Have students read and answer the questions to the case study for Chapter 3.
Students are asked to identify and apply motivational theories that were
introduced in Chapters 2 and 3 to the treatment of employees at Listo Systems.
Assignments
1. There are many pros and cons regarding the well-known theories of motivation
2. Are the motivation theories discussed in this chapter exclusive to the United
States or are they more widespread? If you have international students, take
advantage of this learning/teaching opportunity by asking some culturally specific
questions like: What are the popular motivational theories in different countries?
3. Synthesizing the first three chapters: With a basic understanding of how
leadership and management are different terms, have students discuss the
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Exam Questions
1. Discuss the original purpose of the Hawthorne studies, as opposed to what they
ended up showing. Make a list of points illustrated by the Hawthorne studies.
Answer:
The Hawthorne studies were originally intended to isolate superior physical
working conditions. The first variable manipulated was lighting strength. When
2. Discuss McGregor’s Theory X – Theory Y. What are the important limitations of
each?
Answer:
Theory X and Theory Y refer to two different sets of assumptions about human
nature. Theory X managers believe that most people are lazy, prefer to be
3. Using Argyris’ Organizational Value system and Immaturity-Maturity Theory,
discuss business organizations with which class members are familiar. In what
ways do these organizations support Argyris’ theories? In what ways do they
disprove them?
Answer:
Argyris’ Organizational Value system maintains that there are Theory X-type
4. Identify the hygiene factors and motivators (Herzberg) in the following examples.
Predict whether the individuals are likely to be dissatisfied, neutral, or satisfied.
Bonita works for a small company that makes advanced, high-tech widgets.
Bonita is one of the company’s most highly regarded widget designers, and as
such, is included in planning sessions and is often consulted about the direction of
the company. In comparison to many of her peers in larger companies, Bonita
doesn’t make very much money, although she is able to afford a comfortable
lifestyle.
David is an administrator in a large insurance office. His job is repetitive and
boring and requires quite a bit of attention to detail. The company pays well and
provides excellent health benefits. In addition, David’s work section consists of
seven other people that he likes. They often get together for lunch and sometimes
meet for cocktails after work. Much of their conversation involves the supervisor
and the his latest outrageous request for greater accuracy or more speed.
Mitchell is employed in a challenging job that requires that he be mentally on his
toes all day long. He acts as both buyer and seller of a product, and if he makes an
error in either function, it shows up on his budget almost immediately. The
workload is tremendous and the pace frantic. Mitchell is not paid particularly well
for the responsibility of the position, but it is more than he has ever earned before.
His peers are also relatively young and inexperienced for their jobs. Top
management of the company is constantly changing policy in an attempt to
improve profits. Major procedural changes are instituted several times a year, and
people at Mitchell’s level are blamed if the changes aren’t implemented smoothly.
Answer:
According to Herzberg, hygiene or maintenance factors are such things as: pay,
