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Chapter 2: Theories and Thinking About Diversity

Chapter 2

Theories and Thinking about Diversity

Table of Contents

Page No. in the IM

Chapter Outline

Chapter Objectives

Lecture Notes and Teaching Suggestions

Key Facts (and Associated Questions)

Questions to Consider (End of Chapter)

Suggested Test Questions

Chapter Outline

2. What is a “Minority”?

3. Categorization and Identity

5. “Diversity” and Non-Dominant Groups In Different Contexts

7. Summary

9. Questions to Consider

10. Actions and Exercises

Chapter Objectives

After completing this chapter, readers should have a firm understanding of the meaning of

“minority” groups, the processes surrounding people’s thinking about and treatment of

those who are dissimilar to them, and what organizational processes can help to foster

diversity, equality, and inclusion. Specifically, they should be able to:

• discuss the meaning of the terms minority group and non-dominant group.

• explain characteristics used to identify non-dominant groups and be able to use these

characteristics to identify the non-dominant groups in one’s particular environment.

Chapter 2: Theories and Thinking About Diversity

• discuss thought processes related to stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination and

theories related to diversity in organizations.

• examine in-group favoritism and out-group bias.

Lecture Notes and Teaching Suggestions

This chapter introduces some of the theories and research studies related to psychological

processes affecting diversity in organizations. It provides the readers with a foundation for

understanding stereotyping, prejudice, discrimination, and how to work to impede diversity.

An understanding of these processes will help students to examine the experiences of

different groups mentioned in the subsequent chapters.

Minority or non-dominant groups do not always refer to groups that are numerically fewer

than majority groups. These groups are those subordinated to majority or dominant group

members in terms of power, prestige, and privilege. Anthony and Rosalind Dworkin

proposed that minority group members have four common characteristics: identifiability,

Although everyone views prejudice and discrimination as synonyms, the chapter helps one

understand the difference between the two. The chapter exposes students to formal thinking

about stereotyping and its negative effects on people’s employment opportunities.

Stereotyping and categorization are often unconscious processes, and if they are left

unchecked, they may lead to discrimination against others. This is followed by a discussion

Key Facts (and Associated Questions)

Chapter 2: Theories and Thinking About Diversity

Questions following each “Key Fact” are helpful in stimulating class discussion. (Selected

key facts include discussion points in this Instructors’ Manual. Instructors may choose

different questions to emphasize a particular key fact depending on the needs/interests of

both the students and instructors). Instructors may wish to have students formulate

questions of their own which are relevant to the key facts and use them for class discussion.

• Characteristics of minority or non-dominant groups often include identifiability,

differential power, discrimination, and group awareness.

Question: In the context of non-dominant groups, provide examples of two situations

where the characteristics mentioned above make sense in one situation but does not

make sense in the other situation.

• Minority or non-dominant groups are not necessarily fewer in number than the

majority or dominant groups.

Question: How do groups that are less in number manage to be the dominant group?

Students’ answers will vary. However, students may suggest differences in resources.

• Categorization and stereotyping are often unconscious processes. People tend to

attribute positive characteristics to members of their in-groups and negative

characteristics to members of groups to which they do not belong.

Question: How can the propensity to automatically stereotype a person be reduced?

Chapter 2: Theories and Thinking About Diversity

organizational interventions might help in stereotype reduction. Students’ answers

will vary. However, they should address the points mentioned above.

• In-group favoritism and out-group bias disadvantage non-dominant groups and

impede diversity.

Questions: Why does this happen? Why are non-dominant groups disadvantaged?

What can be done to reduce this propensity?

Emphasize that because the in-groups are more likely to be in power, their propensity

• Structured interviews and control and monitoring of managerial decisions can reduce

similarity effects and other biases in organizations.

Question: How can structured interviews reduce similarity bias in selection?

Discuss the research by July McCarthy and her colleagues provided in Research

Summary 2.1 of the text. The researchers used the key elements of successful

structured interviews (including behaviorally anchored rating scales and interviewer

Questions to Consider (End of Chapter)

1. This chapter discusses many identities and multiple group memberships that people

Chapter 2: Theories and Thinking About Diversity

have. If you were to describe the important parts of your identity, what would be on

your list? Make a list, and then rank in order the most-to-least important aspects of

your identity. Which are immediately apparent to others? What effect does each

identity have on your life?

Instructors may wish to use this exercise for classroom discussion. Note the potential

differences in the description of one’s identity, the ranking of the different aspects of

2. As a powerful group, elected officials affect the life chances of the populace. How are

elected officials in the area in which you live similar to or different demographically

from the population in that area?

3. Researchers have found that people are less willing to express “traditionally”

prejudiced beliefs than in the past, but their behavior does not agree with espoused

beliefs. How can such disparities in expressed beliefs and actions undermine diversity

in organizations? What organizational measures can be implemented to investigate

whether there are inconsistencies in expressed beliefs, behaviors, and outcomes

related to diversity in organizations?

Such disparities can undermine diversity by covert actions, such as steering different

groups to jobs deemed appropriate for them (for example, encouraging women to take

Chapter 2: Theories and Thinking About Diversity

levels? Are there differences in expressed satisfaction, confidence in management,

intent to turnover, and other outcomes between dominant and non-dominant groups?

4. Choose an aspect of your identity in which you are a member of the dominant racial,

ethnic, sex, or religious group. Have you experienced being the minority in a situation

(for example, White among many Blacks, Asians, or Latinos; Christian in the United

States among many Jews)? If you are a racial minority, have you experienced being a

minority among others of color (for example, Asian among many Blacks; Latino

among many Asians) rather than among Whites? If you are a man, have you

experienced being the minority in a meeting at work or at school in a class? If you are

a woman, have you experienced being the minority in a meeting at work or at school

in a class? What were these experiences of being a “minority” like?

Tell students that John Dovidio (whose research on stereotype reduction was cited in

the chapter) experienced being a part of the minority group when he was a college

student on an exchange program from Colgate University and Wellesley College, a

Questions to Consider (Feature 2.1)

1. In addition to racial, ethnic, and gender stereotyping, what other kinds of stereotypes

have you seen in the media? How do frequent portrayals of such stereotypes affect

people’s perceptions of their veracity?

Chapter 2: Theories and Thinking About Diversity

2. Choose one week night and one weekend night to watch television news during prime

time. Describe the race, sex, approximate age, and other notable factors of people

featured in the news. What diversity-related factors do you observe?

3. One commercial that has attempted to change what was a stereotypical statement is the

revised Jif ® peanut butter commercial. Previous commercials said, “Choosy Moms

choose Jif ®”; the newer one says, “Choosy Moms . . . and Dads choose Jif ®.” What

other stereotype-resistant commercials have you observed? What stereotype-supportive

commercials have you observed? What messages are being conveyed?

4. Investigate the circumstances surrounding the 2010 Shirley Sherrod/USDA media-

driven disaster. What could have prevented the disaster from spreading with such

fervor?

Shirley Sherrod, Georgia State Director of Rural Development for the United States

Questions to Consider (Research Summary)

1. Aside from the diversity-related benefits, what are some other benefits of structured job

interviews?

2. For your current job or for your most recent previous job, was your interview a

structured interview? What were the race and sex of the last three people with whom

Chapter 2: Theories and Thinking About Diversity

you interviewed for a job? Were they similar to or different from you? Do you think the

similarity or difference played a role in whether you were hired?

Actions and Exercises

1. Discuss stereotypes with a trusted friend or family member. What kinds of job-related

stereotypes is he or she aware of? (Note that awareness of stereotypes does not mean

belief in the veracity of the stereotype). Discuss how these stereotypes can negatively

affect individuals’ job opportunities and advancement. Can you think of a person who

is not a member of the stereotyped group who fits the stereotypical characteristic? Can

you think of a person who is a member of the stereotyped group who doesn’t fit the

stereotype?

This exercise helps students see the pervasiveness of stereotypes among people from

2. Using a local newspaper (San Francisco Chronicle, Chicago Tribune, Dallas

Morning News, etc.), a campus or university newspaper, and a community or city

newspaper, locate stories that include photos of people in the story. Make a table of

the type of story (human interest, business news, crime, etc.), race, ethnicity, sex, and

estimated age of the subject. What diversity-related observations can be made from

the table?

Engage students in thinking about which groups appear to be well-represented, under-

represented, or invisible. (Are minorities more likely to be represented in crime

stories? How are women portrayed in the photos? How are older people shown—as

frail and elderly or as people still employed? Are any people with disabilities or gays

or lesbians represented? How would one know?) Point out that with invisible group

3. Locate a newspaper that has an executive or business section that includes

“promotions,” “executive changes,” or other career moves. If there are photos of the

people involved, list their race, ethnicity, and sex. If names alone are provided,

determine the sex of the person, where possible. What observations can you make

from your list?

Engage students in thinking about which groups appear to be well-represented, under-

represented, or invisible in this section of the paper. (Are minorities more likely to be