Chapter 2
Motivation and Behavior
Chapter Overview
This chapter introduces the concepts of behavior, motives, and goals. Building on these
concepts, Expectancy Theory is introduced, followed by an extensive discussion of
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, each student should be able to:
1. Explain behavior in relationship to motives and goals
Key Terms and Concepts
Behavior = Motives and Goals
Behavior is basically goal oriented. Generally, we behave as we do because we are
motivated to attain a particular goal, although the goal we are pursuing may not be known
by our conscious mind.
All behavior is a series of activities. We may choose at any time to change from one or
more activities and begin to do something else. Why do people engage in one activity and
not in another? Why do they change activities? How can we as managers learn to
understand, predict, and influence the activities of another person or group of people?
Blocking Need Satisfaction
Need satisfaction can sometimes be blocked. This will result in some form of coping
behavior, which can be either rational or irrational. Examples of rational coping behavior
include substituting a need that can be satisfied for the blocked need or pursuing alternate
Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance theory deals with the relationships between people’s self–
Frustration
When goal attainment is blocked, frustration is the result. Frustration is essentially the
situation that leads to irrational coping behaviors such as:
Aggression: the acting out of hostility
Categories of Activities
Activities resulting from high strength needs can generally be classified into two
categories: goal-directed activity and goal activity.
Expectancy Theory
Victor H. Vroom has suggested an approach to determining the additional factors that
affect need strength. His theory describes a linkage between effort and performance and
between performance and outcomes.
person’s working harder is increased.
Example: Maria has a felt need to receive a raise (a raise has high valence for Maria). She
believes that raises are awarded for good performance (there is a high instrumentality
between performance and receiving a raise). She also believes that if she works very
hard, she can improve her performance (she has high expectancy that hard work will
result in good performance). Maria therefore has high motivation to work hard.
Expectancy and Availability
Two factors affect need strength. They are:
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s framework helps explain the strength of certain needs. According to Maslow,
Physiological Needs
This level of needs tends to be one that can be satisfied relatively easily by access to
money. This is not necessarily true for all levels of needs.
Safety Needs
There are two types of safety or security needs: those that are conscious and those that are
Social Needs
Social needs form the next level after safety needs and are quite complex. People
socialize for many different reasons, ranging from simple enjoyment for its own sake to
Esteem Needs
Esteem needs can be divided into two components:
Prestige – the desire to keep up with (or ahead of) others. People seek prestige
throughout their lives in various ways. Some may choose to pursue material symbols
Self-Actualization Need
Self-actualization is difficult to define, as people seem to satisfy this need in different
ways. It appears to be related to both competence and achievement.
Competence – implies control over environmental factors, both physical and social. The
feeling of competence is related to expectancy. If a person has a history of more
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Alderfer suggested that there are three core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
Alderfer’s existence grouping generally corresponds to Maslow’s basic physiological and
Suggested Teaching Approaches
What motivates you? Several newspapers, such as the San Francisco Chronicle, have a
Question Man who asks thought provoking questions of people in their daily lives. What
motivates you is typical of the questions asked and one that can be used to introduce this
chapter.
Assignments
1. Have students develop their own theory about what motivates them. What are the
key concepts in this theory? How would you diagram it? What are some examples
Discussion Questions
1. How can attitudes be changed? What is the relationship between attitudes and job
satisfaction? Can students give examples of times when their behavior was very
different from their attitudes?
Activities
1. Activity
Students can apply their knowledge from reading Chapter 2 by identifying specific
2. Case Study
The written case study for this chapter focuses on the concept of cognitive dissonance –
Exam Questions
1. Why do managers study motivation and behavior?
Answer:
Managers study motivation and behavior in order to try to predict not only what
activities people are going to choose to engage in at any given time but also what
2. What is cognitive dissonance? Give some examples of situations that might create
dissonance in an individual. What does cognitive dissonance have to do with
blocked need satisfaction?
Answer:
Cognitive dissonance occurs when a person’s self-perception and the perception
of the environment are in conflict. This creates psychological discomfort and
Usually, the first reaction to blocked need satisfaction is some type of rational
coping behavior, either pursuing a different behavior in order to satisfy the
blocked need, or substituting another need for the one that can’t be satisfied. For
Sonia, rational coping behavior might be deciding that it’s unrealistic to try out
for two sports at the same time and concentrate her efforts on just one. For Bob, it
might be going to see the professor for study tips and trying to arrange some type
of extra credit work to make up for the failed midterm.
3. Discuss the changes in motive strength.
Answer:
A motive tends to decrease in strength if it is either satisfied or blocked from
satisfaction.
4. Use the components of Victor H. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory to discuss the
following examples:
Monica would like to be a star basketball player. She has been observing the
coach and it seems to her that the coach spends the most time with those players
who try hardest to excel. It also seems that those players who get the most
attention from the coach tend to develop into the best players.
Tom wants to be considered for promotion to area manager. The people who have
been promoted in the recent past all have had close relationships with the regional
manager. The regional manager seems to develop closer relationships with top
producers. Tom believes that if he works very hard, he could become a top
producer.
What factors in these examples are high valence, high instrumentality, and high
expectancy? What does Expectancy Theory say are the high probability behaviors
for Monica and Tom?
Answer:
In the example describing Monica, being a star basketball player has high valence.
5. Use Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs as a foundation for discussing the following
situations:
Situation 1: Todd Jamison has heard a rumor that his job may be eliminated next
month. His boss, Lucia Conti, is considering moving Todd to a more prestigious
office in an effort to motivate higher performance in him.
Answer:
Lucia Conti’s attempt to motivate Todd Jamison by offering to meet his esteem
Situation 2: Hannah Saltzman has been with the company for twenty-five years.
She makes very good money and is extremely competent at her job. She sat last
week with her boss, Arthur Simms, and said that her job just wasn’t challenging
her. She had received an intriguing job offer from a competitor. She explained
that she wanted to stay with the company, but would really like to be tackling
some new problems. Arthur Simms offered her a twenty-five percent raise to stay.
Answer:
Hannah Saltzman is interested in meeting self-actualization needs, and money is
Situation 3: The Williams family is extremely poor. They have five children, and
the children are always hungry, never sure when, or even if, they will see their
next meal. Parents of other children in the neighborhood can’t understand why the
Williams children show little interest in friendships or playing nicely with their
peers.
Answer:
Situation 4: Brett Calder works in a technical capacity in Silicon Valley. People
with his programming skills are in high demand. He is being paid somewhat less
than the going rate in neighboring companies, but until recently, he has been
taking advantage of the company’s tuition assistance program to pursue his
graduate degree. He has now earned his degree and is meeting with Alice Watkins
from Human Resources to discuss his changed status. She offers him a small
hourly increase and guaranteed job security.
Answer:
Brett Calder is interested in at least satisfying his esteem needs, and possibly will