Some LEP children, mostly those whose first language is Spanish, participate in bilingual education
programs. Bilingual education, however, is logistically impossible for most LEP children. If a school
system has only a handful of students who speak a particular language, it is not financially feasible to
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.9, p. 224)
Why do you suppose submersion is the least effective program?
With respect to achievement, LEP students’ performance in school is very similar to that of English-
speaking children; there is no evidence that a child who enters school with limited English skills has any
Achievement and Intelligence Tests
LO 9.10 Why do schools administer achievement tests, and what kinds of items do they include?
A standardized test is one in which each individual’s performance is determined by comparing his or her
Types of Tests
Achievement tests are designed to assess specific information learned in school. Scores are based on the
comparison of an individual child’s performance to that of other children in the same grade across the
country. Critics of achievement tests point out that we think of achievement tests as indicators of what
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.10, pp. 225-226)
Discuss the pros and cons of using portfolios to indicate actual school learning.
Most U.S. schools also require students to take intelligence tests at various points in their educational
careers. These tests are given to large numbers of students at the same time, and some critics say they are
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 9.10, p. 226)
No Easy Answers: IQ Testing in Schools
What do you think? Should schools offer special programs for children who need special help, as well as
for bright children?
Theories of Intelligence
Some developmentalists say that the problem with relying on IQ tests to predict achievement is that they
fail to provide a complete picture of mental activities. Howard Gardner proposed a theory of multiple
intelligences. This theory claims there are eight types of intelligence:
▪ Linguistic: the ability to use language effectively
▪ Logical/Mathematical: a facility with numbers and logical problem-solving
▪ Musical: the ability to appreciate and produce music
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.10, p. 225-226)
Give examples of famous people who would seem to fit each category of intelligence.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.10, pp. 225-226)
What do you think? In what area(s) of Gardner’s theory would you consider yourself a “genius?”
Emotional Intelligence
Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence proposes three components of human intelligence:
▪ Contextual intelligence has to do with knowing the right behavior for a specific situation. In general,
background is different perform poorly because they are unfamiliar with the context of the test, and
their poor performance is often mistakenly interpreted to mean that they lack intelligence.
▪ Experiential intelligence is also measured by IQ tests. It involves learning to give specific responses
without thinking about them.
Both Gardner’s and Sternberg’s theories have become important in helping educators to understand the
weaknesses of IQ tests. Moreover, psychologist Daniel Goleman’s theory of emotional intelligence has
also added to our understanding of intelligence and achievement. Emotional intelligence has three
components:
▪ Awareness of our own emotions
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.10, p. 227)
Why is self-control important to achievement in school?
Group Differences in Achievement
LO 9.11 What kinds of group differences in achievement have educational researchers found?
Group differences have been found across gender, ethnic groups, and cultures.
Sex Differences in Achievement
Comparisons of total IQ test scores for boys and girls do not reveal consistent differences. It is only when
we break down the total score into several separate skills that some patterns of sex differences emerge.
On average, studies in the United States show that girls do slightly better on verbal tasks and at arithmetic
computation, and that boys do slightly better at numerical reasoning. This difference is evident as soon as
children become developmentally capable of responding verbally to traditional ability tests.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.11, pp. 227-228)
Give examples of how these subtle family and school influences on children’s attitudes about
mathematics can be overcome.
Ethnic Differences in Achievement
Most developmentalists believe that the same factors that contribute to IQ differences—poverty, access to
prenatal care, family stability, and so on—also produce ethnic differences in measures of school
performance such as grades and achievement test scores in American schools.
Psychologists have learned that children who use an analytical style define learning goals and follow a set
of orderly steps to reach them. These children are well-organized, good at learning details, and think of
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.11, p. 228)
How would you characterize your own cognitive style? Do you think you are an “analytical” or a
“relational” type?
Achievement differences may also be due to philosophical beliefs that characterize some U.S. racial
groups. American culture tends to be individualistic—it emphasizes the achievement of individuals and
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.11, p. 228)
Give examples of how cultural differences might impact achievement.
Feelings of hopelessness on the part of some disadvantaged students may also be a factor. For example,
some African American students in the United States, discouraged by racism and a lack of opportunity,
Feature box Activity (Learning Objective 9.11, p. 229)
Research Report: Stereotype Threat
Give real-life examples of stereotype threat.
Cross-Cultural Differences in Achievement
Math and science achievement differences between Asian and North American children have been the
focus of study and debate. Over a 20-year period, studies have repeatedly shown that U.S. school
children are significantly behind their peers in other industrialized nations. Underlying cognitive
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.11, p. 229)
Why do you suppose the belief that hard work is more important to success than innate ability might
make a difference in achievement in school?
Teaching methods across the two cultures also vary.
▪ Japanese and Chinese teachers approach mathematics and science by crafting a series of “master
lessons,” each organized around a single theme or idea, and each involving specific forms of student
participation. These lessons are like good stories, with a beginning, a middle, and an end. In U.S.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.11, pp. 230)
Based on the previous information about automaticity, do you suppose computational fluency should be
encouraged? Defend your answer.
▪ Another difference involves the use of rewards. Because of the influence of Skinner’s operant
conditioning theory on education in the United States, teachers commonly use material rewards, such
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.11, p. 231)
Do you believe rewards, such as stickers, have a place in education? Defend your answer.
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 9.8-9.11, pp. 222-231)
How did your elementary school experience shape the rest of your life?
CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS (pp. 231-236)
MyPsychLab Connections
Learning Disabilities
LO 9.12 Why is the term learning disability controversial?
Some children are born with or develop differences that may significantly interfere with their education
unless they receive some kind of special instruction. In the United States, 12 to 13 percent of all school
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.12, pp. 231-233)
Why is it important to make the distinction between learning disability and a general cognitive
dysfunction?
Learning disabilities might be causes by a subtle neurological problem or it might be a more general
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 9.11, p. 234)
Developmental Science at Home: Homeschooling
Conduct a class debate of the pros and cons of homeschooling.
In reciprocal teaching programs, children with learning disabilities work in pairs or groups, and each child
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
LO 9.13 How does attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder affect a child’s development?
Some children experience learning difficulties that do not seem to fit the typical special education
categories. For examples, three to five percent of U.S. school children have a mental disorder called
Causes of ADHD
The cause of ADHD is unknown.
▪ Some developmentalists suggest that children with ADHD are neurologically different from their
peers. Specifically, some have asserted that children with ADHD have functional deficits in the right
hemisphere of the brain. Others say that serotonin function is impaired in children with ADHD.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.13, p. 234)
Is ADHD primarily a disorder in the United States? List reasons why or why not.
▪ Psychologists are fairly sure that diet, environmental toxins, and brain damage do not cause ADHD.
Most experts believe that each individual case of ADHD is caused by a complex interaction of factors
Characteristics of ADHD
On many kinds of attention tasks, ADHD children do not differ at all from normal children. They seem to
vary from their normal peers in activity level, the ability to sustain attention, and to control impulses. The
degree of hyperactivity ADHD children exhibit is unrelated to their performance on attention tasks,
however. This means that a child can be very physically active and still be good at controlling her
attention. Likewise, a child can be very calm while at the same time possessing little ability to sustain
attention. For this reason, there are now two types of ADHD:
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 9.13, p. 235)
Why might these problems outweigh the child’s cognitive gains in school?
Treating and Managing ADHD
By the time many children with ADHD are diagnosed, usually when they enter school, many parents have
lost confidence in their ability to parent. Some cope with their child by being extremely permissive.
Others respond by becoming excessively harsh and, out of frustration, sometimes treat the child with
ADHD abusively. Thus, parent training can be useful in helping parents cope with children who have
ADHD. The goal of the training is to help parents regain a sense of control.
Many children with ADHD take stimulant medications, like methylphenidate (Ritalin). Most of them are
calmer and can concentrate better when they take these medicines; however, some studies show that the
Critical Thinking Questions (Learning Objectives 9.12-9.13, pp. 231-236)
If you were the parent of a child with special needs, what reasons would you have for wanting your child
to be placed in a special class and what factors would motivate you to prefer that she be taught in a
regular class? How would the nature of the child’s disability affect your preference?
LECTURE ENHANCERS
The Genetic-Environment Interaction in Obesity
The relationship between one’s genetic make-up, called genotype, and how those genetic tendencies get
expressed within an environment, called phenotype, is an extremely important relationship to understand.
The genetic factor that appears to play the most prominent role in obesity is metabolism. Metabolism is
defined as physiological processes, such as the conversion of nutrients into energy, that take place within
What environmental factors might be related to obesity? Many have been suggested but there is little
empirical evidence to support most of these. Eating habits, however, tend to be quite important. Some
individuals eat because it is what they have gotten accustomed to doing. Others, however, eat only when
they are hungry.
In one amazing study, obese subjects were brought into the laboratory and asked to do an extremely
involved task. Completion of the task required total concentration for an extended period of time. While
the subjects were engrossed in their work, the researchers altered the clock. Half of the subjects, upon
Cognitive Advancement during the Ages of 6 to 12 Years
Children during this age range are in what Piaget calls the concrete operational stage of cognitive
development. He refers to these advancing skills as concrete because he feels that the child is not able to
use abstract reasoning. In other words, the child’s thinking is still very cut and dry. During this stage of
cognitive development, however, the child will be acquiring and utilizing some amazingly complex
operations. These include such skills as multiplication, division, and problem-solving strategies. Piaget
stressed the importance of reversibility. This idea, that physical and mental operations can be reversed, is
clearly involved in many of the other operations the child is learning to utilize. Mathematical division or
subtraction, for example, would not be possible without an understanding of how to reverse operations.
At the same time that the child is learning to reverse her thinking, we notice an increase in her ability to
take another person’s perspective. It seems natural that these abilities would coincide. Being able to take
someone else’s perspective requires the skill of seeing issues from more than one angle or from more than
Cognitive Development and the Link to Problem-Solving
Problem-solving will rely on many complex operations. Children during this age range begin to
anticipate certain outcomes before actually engaging in an action. In some sense, this depends on their
ability to think about the future outcome of an action, reverse their thinking, and try another tactic instead.
These same children are becoming very astute observers and can consider and understand cause-effect
relationships. Clearly the skills of observation and making cause-effect connections are critical for the
child’s developing problem-solving ability.
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
Media
▪ MyPsychLab—MyPsychLab contains a variety of engaging activities and assessments that aid in
teaching and learning, including the following tools:
o Writing Space. A single place to create, track, and grade writing assignments, provide writing
resources, and exchange meaningful, personalized feedback with students quickly and easily. For
Fall 2014 courses, Writing Space for the 7th edition will contain new auto-graded writing
prompts. Instructors can also offer their own writing prompts and rubrics through this tool.
▪ MyPsychLab Connections
o Watch: Physical Fitness in the Grade School Years, p. 212