Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.9, p. 193)
Ask the class to give examples of behaviors of permissive parents.
The Authoritative Type
The most positive outcomes for children are associated with an authoritative pattern in which the parents
are high in both control and warmth, setting clear limits, but also responding to the child’s individual
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.9, pp. 193-194)
Why do you think that children of permissive parents are less independent than those from authoritative
families?
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.9, pp. 193-194)
Ask the class to give examples of behaviors of authoritative parents.
The Uninvolved Type
The most consistently negative outcomes are associated with the uninvolved or neglecting type. From the
discussion of secure and insecure attachments in the previous chapter, one of the family characteristics
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.9, p. 194)
Ask the class to give examples of behaviors of uninvolved parents.
Effects of Parenting Styles
Research has found that students who described their parents as the most authoritative at the beginning of
the study showed more improvement in academic competence and self-reliance and the smallest increases
in psychological symptoms and delinquent behavior over the succeeding 2 years. The family system,
however, is more complex than this makes it sound.
▪ Authoritative parents are much more likely to be involved with their child’s school, and this seems to
▪ The interaction between parenting style and the child’s temperament is another set of complexities to
consider. Authoritative parents often use inductive discipline, a discipline strategy in which parents
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.9, pp. 194-195)
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 8.9, p. 198)
Developmental Science at Home: To Spank or Not to Spank?
Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, and Parenting Styles
LO 8.10 How are ethnicity and socioeconomic status related to parenting style?
Ethnicity and socioeconomic variables also interact with parenting styles. An important, large-scale
cross-sectional study involved roughly 10,000 adolescents in high schools that were chosen to be
representative of four different ethnic groups—White, black, Hispanic, and Asian. The students answered
questions to see if their family could be classified as authoritative. The authoritative pattern was most
The strong link between authoritative parenting style and positive outcomes were found only for Whites
and Hispanics.
▪ For Asian Americans and African Americans, stronger connections between authoritarian style and
variables, such as school performance and social competence were found. In fact, studies indicate a
link between Asian American children’s achievement and authoritarian parents—that is, those parents
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.10, pp. 195-196)
Can you think of other reasons for the ethnic and socioeconomic differences in parenting styles?
Family Structure
LO 8.11 How is family structure related to children’s development?
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.11, p. 196)
Speculate as to some of the reasons that the United States has so many more single-parent families than
other industrialized nations.
Diversity in Two-Parent and Single-Parent Families
The two-parent family is far more diverse than in the past or in other industrialized nations. Only about
half of all children in the United States live with both their biological parents. Some 20 to 30 percent of
two-parent families were created when a divorced or never-married single parent married another single
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.11, pp. 196-197)
Give examples of the diversity of families.
Family Structure and Ethnicity
Looking at family structure across ethnic groups further illustrates U.S. family diversity. Single-parent
families are far more common among African Americans and Native Americans than other groups.
▪ Difference in the proportion of births to unmarried women is one contributing factor.
▪ Although many African American and Native American single mothers eventually marry, African
Other Types of Family Structures
There are relatively few studies of the effects of other kinds of family structures.
▪ Research on custodial grandparenting tends to focus on the effects of the parenting experiences on
aging adults. Thus, we know something about how parenting affects older adults, but very little about
how children reared by grandparents fare.
Divorce
LO 8.12 How does divorce affect children’s behavior in early childhood and in later years?
There can be little doubt that divorce is traumatic for children. It is not, however, a single variable;
children are probably affected by a multitude of divorce-related factors such as parental conflict, poverty,
disruptions of daily routine, involvement of the non-custodial parents, and so on. For this reason,
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.12, pp. 200-201)
Speculate as to some reasons why the negative effects of divorce are more pronounced in boys than in
girls, and some reasons why the effects may be delayed for girls.
Understanding the Effects of Family Structure and Divorce
LO 8.13 What are some possible reasons for the relationship between family structure and
development?
In the United States, research suggests that the optimum situation for children appears to include two
natural parents. Never-married mothers, divorced mothers or fathers who have not remarried, and
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.13, p. 201)
Speculate as to some of the possible reasons why preschoolers of single teenagers display less advanced
cognitive and social development than their peers.
Non-intact families seem to have negative effects (or less positive effects) for three key reasons:
▪ Single parenthood or divorce reduces the financial and emotional resources available to support the
child.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.13, pp. 201-202)
How important was your own extended family to you and your parent(s) during your early childhood
years?
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 8.13, p. 202)
No Easy Answers: When Divorce is Unavoidable
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 8.8-8.13, pp. 191-202)
In what ways do you think parenting styles and family structure interact to affect development? For
instance, might there be differences in how authoritarian parenting influences children in two-parent
versus single-parent families?
PEER RELATIONSHIPS (pp. 202-207)
MyPsychLab Connections
Watch: Play in Early Childhood, p. 203
Watch: Rough and Tumble Play, p. 204
Relating to Peers Through Play
LO 8.14 What are the various kinds of play that are exhibited by preschoolers?
At every age, children are likely to spend at least some of their time playing alone, a pattern known as
solitary play. They may also exhibit onlooker play, a pattern in which they watch another child playing.
Children first begin to show some positive interest in playing with others, however, as early as 6 months
of age. By 14 to 18 months, we begin to see two or more children playing with toys, sometimes
cooperating together, but more often simply playing side by side with different toys, called parallel play.
Play is related to cognitive development. It is also related to the development of social skills, a set of
behaviors that usually lead to being accepted as a play partner or friend by others. Many researchers have
focused on the social skill of group entry. Children who are skilled in group entry spend time observing
others to find out what they’re doing and then try to become part of it. Children who have poor group–
entry skills try to gain acceptance through aggressive behavior or by interrupting the group. Children
with poor group-entry skills are often rejected by peers, which, in turn, is an important factor in future
social development. According to recent studies, there appear to be sex differences in the reasons for and
consequences of poor group-entry skills.
▪ Three-year-old girls with poorly developed group-entry skills spent more time in parallel play than in
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.14, p. 203)
Can social skills be taught? If so, what are the logistics of doing so? For example, when should it begin?
Who should be trained? How should it be taught? Should it be mandatory for children who are having
difficulty getting along with others? Who decides if a child is at risk? Are there other issues involved?
Aggression
LO 8.15 What types of aggression do children display during early childhood?
Aggression is behavior with the apparent intent to injure another person or damage an object. The
emphasis on intentionality helps us separate true aggression from rough-and-tumble play in which
children sometimes accidentally hurt one another. The form and frequency of aggression changes over
the preschool years.
▪ When 2- or 3-year-old children are upset or frustrated, they are most likely to throw things or hit each
other. As their verbal skills improve, however, they shift away from such overt physical aggression
and move toward greater use of verbal aggression, such as taunting or name-calling. The decline in
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.15, pp. 203-204)
Think about the groups you belong to. Do they have such dominance hierarchies?
▪ A second change in the quality of aggression is a shift from primarily instrumental aggression to
Psychologists have suggested several key factors in aggressive behavior.
▪ One early group of American psychologists argued that aggression is always preceded by frustration
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.17, p. 204)
How can adults help children deal with their frustration without using punishment?
▪ Other developmentalists argue that reinforcement and modeling are important. Aggressive behavior
that is reinforced is likely to be repeated. When parents give in to their young child’s tantrums or
aggression, they are reinforcing the very behavior they deplore, and they thereby help to establish a
long-lasting pattern of aggression and defiance. Modeling also plays a key role in children’s learning
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.15, pp. 203-205)
Picture this scenario: You are at the cereal aisle at the grocery store. A preschool child wants a particular
kind of cereal and the parent says no. The child is throwing a temper tantrum in the grocery cart. Role–
play some likely results of the scenario and identify the behaviors that are being reinforced in each.
Whatever the cause, most children become less aggressive across the preschool years. There are a few
children, however, for whom an aggressive behavior pattern in early childhood becomes quite literally a
way of life. Researchers have searched for causes of this kind of aggression, which some psychologists
refer to as trait aggression to distinguish it from developmentally normal forms of aggression.
▪ Some psychologists have looked for a genetic basis and have produced some supportive data.
▪ Others suggest that trait aggression is associated with being raised in an aggressive environment, such
as an abusive family. Family factors other than abuse, such as lack of affection and the use of
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.15, pp. 203-205)
What do you think? Are some children just naturally more aggressive than others or is it a learned
behavior? Give examples to support your answer.
Prosocial Behavior and Friendship
LO 8.16 How do prosocial behavior and friendship patterns change during early childhood?
Prosocial behavior, like aggression, is intentional and voluntary, but its purpose is to help another person
in some way. In everyday terms, this is essentially what we mean by altruism, and it changes with age,
just as other aspects of peer behavior change.
Development of Prosocial Behavior
At about age 2 or 3, children offer to help another child who is hurt, offer a toy, or try to comfort another
person. Past these early years, changes in prosocial behavior show a mixed pattern. Some kinds of
prosocial behavior, such as turn-taking, donating a treat to another child, and helpfulness, seem to
Parental and Cultural Influences on Prosocial Behavior
Research suggests that parental behavior contributes to the development of prosocial behavior.
▪ Parents of altruistic children create a loving and warm family climate. This is especially effective if
the warmth is combined with clear explanations. They also explain and give rules; clear rules about
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 8.16, p. 206)
What do you think? Can altruism be taught? Give examples to support your answer.
Friendships
Beginning at about age 18 months, toddlers show early hints of playmate preferences or individual
friendships. By age 3, however, about 20 percent of children have a stable playmate. By age 4, more
than half spend 30 percent or more of their time with one other child. Thus, an important change in social
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 8.14-8.16, pp. 202-207)
Do you think that peer relationships are necessary to social development in early childhood? That is, do
you think that young children who have no exposure to children other than their own siblings are just as
likely to emerge from early childhood with adequate social skills as those who have opportunities to
interact with peers?
LECTURE ENHANCERS
Theoretical Perspectives on Social and Personality Development
Two of the most enduring theories of child development during the ages of 2 to 6 have been the theory of
Sigmund Freud and the theory of Erik Erikson. Freud believed that a child’s developmental progress
occurs because of changes in sexual sensitivity. A major amount of the child’s attention is directed
toward the anal region of the body, and he called this stage the anal stage. The toddler, for example,
Freud was one of the first to note that this time period can be of great importance. It represents one of the
first major opportunities for conflict between the parent and the child. The child is learning that the
parent wants her to go to the bathroom in the potty and not in her diaper. At the same time, the parent is
learning that there is really very little he or she can do to speed along this process if the toddler is not
willing. What is at play here is the child’s beginning awareness of the importance of self-control. Many
parents have described this as a time of great conflict and stress. Other parents report that the experience
was simple and conflict free. What accounts for these differing reports? Several things are involved
including the following:
Some children seem unwilling to give up the diaper. Others cannot seem to wait to kick that thing off and
wear big-kid pants. How the parent responds to this degree of willingness is crucial. If the experience is
made to be fun and rewarding, all might progress smoothly. If, however, the experience is turned into a
Erik Erikson provided a very different picture of child development during the ages of 2 to 6. Erikson felt
that we make developmental progress by confronting and successfully resolving crises in our lives. He
referred to two stages of development during these years, autonomy versus shame and doubt and initiative
versus guilt. The child is gaining increasing mobility during these years and along with this comes an
increasing sense of independence and control. At the same time, however, the caregivers are attempting
to set limits, to keep the rapidly exploring child safe, and to accommodate the child’s expanding interests.
Although these theories proposed dramatically different viewpoints about how the child comes to these
skills, the messages are remarkably similar. The maturing child is developing a desire for self-control, is
increasingly active in exploring his or her environment, and is trying to develop a sense of self-concept at
The Beginnings of Self-Control
A major challenge for the developing child is self-control. As an infant, the child is used to doing
whatever he feels the need to do whenever he feels the need to do it. As the child gets older, however,
there are increasing demands placed on him to control his behaviors. Consider some of the ways in which
we expect the child during the age range from two to six to control her behaviors:
▪ Do not interrupt when people are talking.
▪ If you want a toy, wait until the other child is finished playing with it.
Peer Relationships and Self-Concept Development
Neither Freud nor Erikson stresses the importance of peer relationships in the child’s development.
Hartup, on the other hand, stresses the importance of developing both complementary relationships (ones
in which the individual shows attachment to someone who has greater power or knowledge than the child)
and reciprocal relationships (ones in which the person to whom the child is attached has equal power or
knowledge). The reciprocal relationship, of course, would be considered a peer relationship. Peer
relationships are then related to self-concept development and involve many components including: (1)
how many peers the child is attached to, (2) the child’s social skills, and (3) the child’s initial self-esteem
level.
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
Media
▪ MyPsychLab—MyPsychLab contains a variety of engaging activities and assessments that aid in
teaching and learning, including the following tools:
o Writing Space. A single place to create, track, and grade writing assignments, provide writing
resources, and exchange meaningful, personalized feedback with students quickly and easily. For
Fall 2014 courses, Writing Space for the 7th edition will contain new auto-graded writing
▪ MyPsychLab Connections
o Watch: Understanding Self and Others, p. 185
o Watch: Adults’ Perceptions of Boys and Girls, p. 189