PROBLEMS IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT (pp. 64-71)
MyPsychLab Connections
Simulate: Teratogens and Their Effects, p. 64
Watch: Fetal Alcohol Damage, p. 67
Watch: Maternal Emotions, p. 70
Watch: Prenatal Development: Genetic counseling, p. 71
How Teratogens Influence Development
LO 3.9 How do teratogens affect prenatal development?
Deviations in prenatal development can result from exposure to teratogens, substances that cause damage
to an embryo or fetus. The general rule is that each organ system is most vulnerable to harm at the time
Drugs, Tobacco, and Alcohol
LO 3.10 What are the potential adverse effects of tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs on prenatal
development?
Any drug can be teratogenic. Unless a drug is absolutely necessary to a woman’s health, doctors
recommend avoiding drugs of any kind during pregnancy. There are several drugs that seem to affect
infant development independent of other variables.
Prescription and Over-the-Counter Drugs
In general, doctors advise against taking any unnecessary medicines during pregnancy. Some women,
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.10, p. 66)
List several reasons as to why it’s important for a woman to see her doctor early in her pregnancy.
Illegal Drugs
The infants of twice-weekly marijuana smokers suffer from tremors and sleep problems, and they seem to
have little interest in their surroundings for up to 2 weeks after birth.
Both heroin and methadone can cause miscarriage, premature labor, and early death. Sixty to eighty
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.10, pp. 66-67)
Since the symptoms usually disappear in a few months, why is there cause for concern about these drugs?
Cocaine is linked to many kinds of developmental problems. Most cocaine-using pregnant women are
poor and abuse multiple substances, making it difficult to separate the effects of cocaine from those of
poverty and other drugs.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.10, pp. 66-67)
Here’s a question of medical ethics: There are now several cases of pregnant women being held in
custody to prevent them from excessive drinking or drug use, on the grounds that the court has the
responsibility to prevent harm to the fetus. Debate the pros and cons of the issue.
Tobacco
The correlation between smoking during pregnancy and an infant’s birth weight has been well–
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.10, p. 67)
Do you suppose second-hand smoke is as damaging to the baby as first-hand smoke? Support your
answer.
Alcohol
Recent studies show that alcohol can affect the health of an ovum prior to ovulation or during its journey
down the fallopian tube to the uterus. The zygote can be affected by alcohol even before it has been
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.10, pp. 67-68)
Few, if any, other teratogens have been shown to cause damage to the ovum prior to ovulation or to the
zygote before it has been implanted. Why do you suppose the effect of alcohol during pregnancy
overrides the general rule that each organ system is most vulnerable to harm at the time when it is
developing most rapidly?
Maternal Diseases
LO 3.11 What risks are associated with teratogenic maternal diseases?
The following are some of the viruses that pass through the placental filters and attack the embryo or fetus
directly:
▪ HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is one of the many sexually-transmitted organisms that can be
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.11, pp. 67-68)
Given these new findings about the benefits of AZT, do you think all pregnant women should be required
to be tested for HIV infection so that those who test positive can be given AZT?
▪ Other STDs, including syphilis, genital herpes, gonorrhea, and cytomegalovirus, cause a variety of
▪ Unlike most teratogens, syphilis is most harmful during the last 26 weeks of prenatal development
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.11, pp. 67-68)
Why do you suppose many of the STDs are more likely to cause damage later in pregnancy than other
diseases, such as rubella?
Other Maternal Influences on Prenatal Development
LO 3.12 What other maternal factors influence prenatal development?
Diet
Maternal diet plays an important part in prenatal development. Adequate amounts of specific nutrients,
such as folic acid, are necessary for neural tube development; inadequate amounts are linked to diseases,
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.12, pp. 68-69)
Why do you suppose the nervous system is the most vulnerable organ when there is inadequate nutrition?
Age
The average age at which women give birth for the first time has increased over the past few decades.
One effect of this trend is that the number of multiple births has increased dramatically. Their babies are
at greater risk of weighing less than 5.5 pounds at birth. Infants born to women over the age of 35 are at
higher risk of having problems, such as heart malfunctions and chromosomal disorders.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.12, p. 69)
Why do you suppose the age of the woman is a factor? What about the age of the father? Is it equally
likely to have an impact? Why?
Chronic Illnesses
Chronic illnesses such as heart disease, diabetes, lupus, hormone imbalances, and epilepsy can also
Environmental Hazards
There are a number of substances found in the environment that may have detrimental effects on prenatal
development, such as the following list:
▪ Mercury: women who work as dentists, dental technicians, or as semi-conductor manufacturing
workers; consuming large amounts of fish.
Maternal Emotions
Maternal emotions may affect prenatal development. Some psychologists suggest that stress, such as
anxiety and depression, may lead to changes in body chemistry that could lead to hormone changes to
Fetal Assessment and Treatment
LO 3.13 How do physicians assess and manage fetal health?
The following are some laboratory tests to assist in diagnosing fetal abnormalities:
▪ Ultrasonography is useful in monitoring fetal growth.
▪ Tests like chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and amniocentesis can be used to get information about
chromosomal abnormalities or inherited diseases. In both cases, a needle is inserted and cells are
taken from the developing embryo. In CVS, the sample is taken from what will become the placenta;
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.13, pp. 70-71)
What do you think? Would you want to know about developmental problems before birth?
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 3.9-3.13, pp. 64-71)
With the advent of antiretroviral drugs, the rate of mother-to-fetus transmission of HIV has been greatly
BIRTH AND THE NEONATE (pp. 72-78)
MyPsychLab Connections
Watch: Drug-Free Deliveries, p. 73
Birth Choices
LO 3.14 What kinds of birth choices are available to expectant parents?
In many Western industrialized countries, parents have choices about delivery. In other cultures, custom
may dictate the answer, and options are therefore not available.
The Location of Birth and Birth Attendants
The following are the four alternatives typically available as to where the baby is to be born in the United
States:
▪ A traditional hospital maternity unit
More than 99 percent of babies in the United States are born in hospitals.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.14, p. 72)
What is your preference and why?
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.14, p. 72)
What are the advantages and disadvantages of having your baby delivered by a certified nurse-midwife
or a certified midwife rather than by a doctor in a hospital?
Drugs During Delivery
There are three types of drugs commonly used during labor and delivery:
▪ Analgesics are given during labor to reduce pain.
Studying the causal links between such drugs and the baby’s later behavior or development is difficult.
First, nearly all drugs given to the mother during labor and delivery pass through the placenta and enter
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.14, pp. 72-73)
Which of the research methods you learned about in Chapter 1 would you have to use to identify causal
connections between anesthetics (and other drugs administered during childbirth) and subsequent
development of the child? Why have no such studies been done?
Second, beyond the first few days there are no consistently observed effects from analgesics and
tranquilizers, and only hints from a few studies of long-term effects of anesthesia. These contradictory
Many women choose to avoid drugs altogether. Natural childbirth is the commonly used term to refer to
this particular choice. It is often called the Lamaze method after the physician who popularized the
notion of relying on psychological and behavior methods of pain management, rather than pain-relieving
drugs. It has several components:
▪ Women select someone, usually the baby’s father, to serve as a labor coach.
The Physical Process of Birth
LO 3.15 What happens in each of the three stages of labor?
Labor is typically divided into three stages.
▪ Stage 1 includes two important processes: dilation and effacement. Dilation is the opening of the
cervix (the bottom of the uterus) large enough for the baby to pass through, about ten centimeters
Cesarean Deliveries
Sometimes it is necessary to deliver a baby surgically through incisions made in the abdominal and
uterine walls. There are several situations that justify the use of this operation, called a cesarean section
(or c-section):
▪ Breech presentation: Most infants are delivered head first, facing toward the mother’s spine. A
Birth Complications
During the process of birth, some babies go into fetal distress, a sudden change in the baby’s heart rate.
One cause is pressure on the umbilical cord. For example, if the cord becomes lodged between the baby’s
Assessing the Neonate
LO 3.16 What do physicians learn about a newborn from the Apgar and Brazelton scales?
A baby is referred to as a neonate for the first month of life. The health of neonates is usually assessed
with the Apgar scale. The baby receives a score of 0, 1, or 2 on each of five criteria. A maximum score
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.16, pp. 75-76)
Why do you suppose the Apgar scale is used immediately after birth and again after about five minutes?
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.16, pp. 75-76)
Why do you suppose help with breathing is what babies scoring 4, 5, or 6 might need?
Health professionals often use the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale to track a newborn’s
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.16, pp. 75-76)
How does the Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale differ from the Apgar Scale?
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 3.16, pp. 76)
Developmental Science in the Clinic: Singing to Preterm Infants
What are some examples of lullabies and play songs with which you are familiar?
Low Birth Weight and Preterm Birth
LO 3.17 Which infants are categorized as low birth weight and what risks are associated with this
status?
Classification of a neonate’s weight is another important factor in assessment. Babies who weigh less
than 5.5 pounds (2500 grams) are considered to be low birth weight (LBW). Most LBW infants are
preterm, or born before the 38th week of gestation.
Some infants are full-term but still weigh less than 2500 grams and are called small-for-date. Infants in
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 3.17, pp. 76-78)
What is the economic impact on a family if a baby is born with a low birth weight? What can parents
(both mothers and fathers) do to reduce the risk of low-birth-weight babies?
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 3.17, p. 77)
No Easy Answers: When Do Preterm Infants Catch Up with Full-Term Infants?
Why might “kangaroo care” impact how rapidly a preterm child develops?
Critical Thinking Question (Leaning Objectives 3.14-3.17, pp. 72-78)
LECTURE ENHANCERS
Genotype versus Phenotype
When we look at individuals, watch their behaviors, note their distinguishing characteristics, or wonder
about why they have the likes and dislikes that they do, we are pondering an intricate pattern of
development. Genotype is defined as the combination of genes from the father in the sperm and from the
mother in the ovum. In a sense, this genetic combination creates a genetic blueprint that will be critical in
the development of the conceived individual.
As any architect or builder can tell us, the blueprint alone does not determine the structure that is built.
This is where the concept of phenotype comes in. Phenotype is defined as the individual’s actual
observed characteristics. It is the integration of genes, environment, and their unique interaction that
Genes and the Environment
People working with a young mother and her child in a social work setting would benefit by
understanding what the mother might be able to do to stimulate her child intellectually if she cannot
afford to buy books. The environment into which the child is born does not doom that child. The
caregivers in that environment, however, will need to find creative ways to provide for the child’s needs.
Children with genetic difficulties can also thrive if the right set of environmental conditions can be put
into place.
Compensating for Things That Go “Wrong” During Development
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
Media
▪ MyPsychLab—MyPsychLab contains a variety of engaging activities and assessments that aid in
teaching and learning, including the following tools:
o Writing Space. A single place to create, track, and grade writing assignments, provide writing
resources, and exchange meaningful, personalized feedback with students quickly and easily. For
Fall 2014 courses, Writing Space for the 7th edition will contain new auto-graded writing
MyPsychLab.
▪ MyPsychLab Connections
o Watch: Prenatal Development: A Preference for Sons, p. 50
o Explore: Dominant and Recessive Traits, p. 52
o Watch: Period of the Zygote, p. 57
o Watch: Prenatal Development: Pregnancy and Prenatal Care, p. 57
o Watch: Fetal Development, p. 61