CHAPTER 2
THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
RESOURCES-AT-A-GLANCE
Detailed Outline
Learning
Objectives
Instructor’s Resources
Test Bank
MyPsychLab Connection
Chapter Introduction pp. 23-24
PowerPoint Slides
1-6
Evaluation of Psychoanalytic Theories
PowerPoint Slides
ES 106–109
Watch
Introduction to Human Development:
Psychoanalytic Theories pp. 24–28
Lecture Enhancer
7-13
MC 1-19
Explore
Erik Erikson, p. 26
Explore
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial
Development, p. 26
Learning Theories pp. 29-33
Classical Conditioning
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory
Evaluation of Learning Theories
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Lecture Enhancer
Learning Theories
PowerPoint Slides
14–22
MC 20-37
FI 82–85
SA 95–99
ES 110–111
Explore
Classical Conditioning of Little
Albert, p. 29
Bandura’s Study on Observational
Learning, p. 31
Cognitive Theories pp. 33-38
Piaget’s Cognitive-Development
Theory
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Information-Processing Theory
Evaluation of Cognitive Theories
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
Lecture Enhancer
Cognitive Theories
PowerPoint Slides
23–33
MC 38-64
FI 86–88
SA 100-102
ES 112–113
Biological and Ecological Theories
pp. 38-41
Behavior Genetics
Ethology and Sociobiology
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological
Theory
2.12
2.13
2.14
PowerPoint Slides
34–39
MC 65-73
FI 89–90
SA 103-104
ES 114
Comparing Theories pp. 41-44
Assumptions about Development
Usefulness
2.15
2.16
PowerPoint Slides
MC 74-75
Eclecticism
2.17
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Three “families” of theories have significantly influenced the study of development. Some biological and
ecological theories focus on individual differences, while others deal with universal aspects of
development. The comparison of theories is based on three assumptions about theories and evaluated by
criteria for usefulness.
Freud’s emphasis is on the importance of both conscious and unconscious processes. The personality is
composed of the id, the ego, and the superego that influence our motives. He proposed five psychosexual
stages, and he believed that each of the first three stages potentially impact our development. Erikson’s
Piaget’s focus is on the development of logical thinking across four stages in childhood and adolescence.
Vygotsky’s socio–cultural theory is important in developmentalists’ attempts to explain how culture
impacts development. Information-processing theory uses the computer as a model to explain intellectual
processes, such as memory and problem-solving. Research confirms the sequence of skill development
that Piaget proposed, but it suggests that young children are more capable than he believed. Information-
processing theory helps to clarify some of the cognitive processes underlying Piaget’s findings, as well as
our understanding of memory.
Behavior geneticists study the influence of heredity on individual differences and the ways in which
individuals’ genes influence their environments. Ethologists study genetically determined traits and
behaviors that help animals adapt to their environments. Sociobiologists emphasize the genetic basis of
behaviors that promote the development and maintenance of social organizations in both animals and
humans. Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory helps developmentalists categorize environmental factors
and their impact on individuals.
Theories vary on three basic assumptions: Are individuals active or passive in their own development?
How do nature and nurture interact to produce development? Does development happen continuously or
LEARNING OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
After completing Chapter 2, students should be able to answer the following questions:
2.1 What are the main ideas of Freud’s psychosexual theory?
2.2 What is the conflict associated with each of Erikson’s psychological stages?
2.3 What are the strengths and weaknesses of psychoanalytic theory?
2.4 How did Watson condition Little Albert to fear white, furry objects?
2.5 How does operant conditioning occur?
2.6 In what ways does social-cognitive theory differ from other learning theories?
2.7 How do the learning theories explain development?
2.8 How does cognitive development progress, according to Piaget?
2.9 How did Vygotsky use the concepts of scaffolding and the zone of proximal development to
explain cognitive development?
2.10 How does information-processing theory explain the findings of developmental psychologists
KEY TERMS
accommodation (p. 34)
assimilation (p. 34)
behavior genetics (p. 38)
behaviorism (p. 29)
bioecological theory (p. 40)
classical conditioning (p. 29)
cognitive theories (p. 33)
eclecticism (p. 43)
ego (p. 24)
equilibration (p. 34)
ethology (p. 39)
extinction (p. 31)
id (p. 24)
information-processing theory (p. 35)
INTEGRATED CHAPTER TEACHING NOTES
Developmental psychologists use theories to formulate hypotheses. At the broadest level are three
families of theories—psychoanalytic theories, learning theories, and cognitive-developmental theories.
The most comprehensive explanations of developmental phenomena often include ideas from the three
major theories, as well as those that are derived from biological and contextual theories.
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES (pp. 24-28)
MyPsychLab Connections
Explore: The Id, Ego, and Superego, p. 25
Watch: Introduction to Human Development: Erik Erikson, p. 26
Explore: Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development, p. 26
Psychoanalytic theorists believe that developmental change happens because of the influence of internal
drives and emotions on behavior.
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
LO 2.1 What are the main ideas of Freud’s psychosexual theory?
Most of Freud’s ideas about development were derived from his work with adults who were suffering
from serious mental disorders. These patients’ memories of their early experiences constituted the
primary source of data upon which Freud based his theory. One of his most important conclusions about
his patients’ memories was that behavior is governed by both conscious and unconscious processes. The
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.1, pp. 24-25)
What would the three parts of Freud’s theory “say” to you about your desire for cheesecake or to see how
fast your new car can go?
The ego is responsible for keeping the three components in balance. Defense mechanisms are created by
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 2.1, p. 25)
No Easy Answers: The Repressed Memory Controversy
What do you think? If you were the client, would you want a therapist to attempt to unearth a repressed
memory from your unconscious?
Freud proposed a series of psychosexual stages through which the child moves in a fixed sequence. In
each stage, the libido is centered in that part of the body that is most sensitive at that age.
▪ In a newborn, the focus is on the mouth, and Freud called this the oral stage.
▪ The second stage puts more focus on the anus and is called the anal stage.
▪ The third stage focuses on the genitals and is called the phallic stage. Freud asserted that children
experience sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent during the phallic stage. He borrowed names
for this conflict from Greek literature. Oedipus was a male character who was involved in a romantic
According to Freud, optimum development requires an environment to satisfy the unique needs of each
period. An inadequate early environment will result in fixation that leaves unresolved problems and
unmet needs that shape our personality as adults. Emphasis on the formative role of the early experience
is a hallmark of psychoanalytic theories.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.1, p. 26)
What do you think? How important are the first 5 or 6 years of life in shaping our personalities?
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
LO 2.2 What is the conflict associated with each of Erikson’s psychosocial stages?
Erikson thought development resulted from the interaction between inner instincts and outer cultural and
social demands. Therefore, he called his stages psychosocial rather than psychosexual. Erikson also
believed that development occurred across the entire life span. To do so, one must move through and
successfully resolve eight “crises” or “dilemmas.” Each crisis is challenged by new relationships, new
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.2, p. 27)
Presuming we want to be on the positive side of Ego Integrity versus Despair when we are older adults
(Stage 8), what can we do, starting at whatever age we are now, to increase the likelihood of
experiencing integrity rather than despair?
Evaluation of Psychoanalytic Theories
LO 2.3 What are the strengths and weaknesses of psychoanalytic theory?
Five of the strengths of psychoanalytic theories are as follows:
▪ They focus our attention on the importance of the emotional quality of the child’s earliest relationship
with caregivers.
▪ They suggest that the child’s needs change with age, so that the parents must constantly adapt to the
changing child. The interaction pattern of the family is crucial in the development of personality.
The major weakness of psychoanalytic theories is as follows:
▪ The concepts lack precise definitions making it extremely difficult to test the theories.
Critical Thinking Questions (Learning Objectives 2.1-2.3, pp. 26-28)
In which of Erickson’s stages would you place yourself? Does Erikson’s description of it correspond to
the challenges and concerns you are confronting?
LEARNING THEORIES (pp. 29-33)
MyPsychLab Connections
Explore: Classical Conditioning of Little Albert, p. 29
Explore: Bandura’s Study on Observational Learning, p. 31
Psychologist John Watson believed that, through manipulation of the environment, children could be
trained to be or do anything. He coined the term behaviorism, which defines development in terms of
Classical Conditioning
LO 2.4 How did Watson condition Little Albert to fear white, furry objects?
Classical conditioning begins with an unconditional stimulus that prompts an automatic or unconditioned
response. These are unlearned and naturally occurring. When a new stimulus, the conditional stimulus, is
presented just before or at the same time as the unconditional stimulus, we learn to associate it with the
naturally occurring unconditional stimulus and response. Eventually, we respond to the conditional
stimulus the same way we responded to the unconditional stimulus, even if the unconditional stimulus is
not present.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.4, p. 29)
Ask the students to give several examples of classical conditioning and have the students describe what is
happening before conditioning, during conditioning, and after conditioning. Include examples involving
fears and aversive conditioning.
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 2.4, p. 30)
Developmental Science in the Classroom: Systematic Desensitization
In groups, list examples of classical conditioning, and explain how systematic desensitization could be
used to help a child overcome her anxiety.
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
LO 2.5 How does operant conditioning occur?
Operant conditioning is a term coined by B. F. Skinner, the most famous proponent of the theory. It
involves learning to repeat or stop behaviors because of the consequences they bring about.
Reinforcement happens when a behavior is repeated because of the consequence that followed it. When
a behavior stops because of a consequence, punishment has occurred.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.5, p. 31)
List times when punishment did not stop your behavior. What happened instead? Devise a more
effective plan to change behavior.
One of the problems with punishment is that it often does not cause someone to stop the behavior. An
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.5, p. 31)
Give several scenarios of getting a child to complete household chores (such as cleaning their room,
mowing the lawn, washing the dishes, washing the family car, etc.) and have the students describe how
they could use positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction to accomplish
the change in behavior.
Operant conditioning research in a laboratory is not concerned with the social affects of behaviors or
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.5, p. 31)
Why are the results of partial reinforcement longer lasting than continuous reinforcement? Give
examples.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.5, p. 31)
Children are not the only ones whose behavior may be altered by using the principles of operant
Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Theory
LO 2.6 In what ways does social-cognitive theory differ from other learning theories?
Albert Bandura states that learning does not always require reinforcement; sometimes we learn from
watching others. This is called observational learning or modeling.
Learning from modeling is not an entirely automatic process. Bandura points out that what an observer
learns from watching someone else depends on two things:
• what she pays attention to
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.6, pp. 31-32)
Give examples of observational learning. Describe how attention, memory, and maturation may
influence each.
Bandura asserts that children learn not only overt behavior but also ideas, expectations, internal standards,
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.6, pp. 31-32)
Give examples of some behaviors for which they have high or low self-efficacy.
Evaluation of Learning Theories
LO 2.7 How do the learning theories explain development?
There are several implications of learning theories.
▪ Learning theories can explain both consistency and change in behavior.
Critical Thinking Questions (Learning Objectives 2.4-2.7 pp. 29-33)
Can you describe instances in your everyday life when your behavior is affected by classical
conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning? How do you use these same principles to
affect others’ behavior?
COGNITIVE THEORIES (pp. 33-38)
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory
LO 2.8 How does cognitive development progress, according to Piaget?
Jean Piaget was aware of the fact that all children seem to go through the same kinds of sequential
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.8, p. 34)
Give examples of schemes, both simple and complex. Include examples of times when a scheme did not
work in a particular situation.
Assimilation is the process of applying schemes to experiences. Accommodation is a complementary
process that involves changing the scheme as a result of new information acquired by assimilation. In
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.8, p. 34)
Describe three or four examples of assimilation and accommodation in your everyday life.
Piaget’s research suggested to him that logical thinking evolves across four stages.
▪ During the sensorimotor stage (birth to 18 months), infants use their sensory and motor schemes to
act on the world around them.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.8, p. 35)
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
LO 2.9 How did Vygotsky use the concepts of scaffolding and the zone of proximal development to
explain cognitive development?
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory asserts that complex forms of thinking have their origins in social
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.9, p. 35)
How is scaffolding involved when a parent helps a child with homework?
Vygotsky’s theory has educational applications. Like Piaget’s ideas, he suggests the importance of
opportunities for active exploration. Assisted discovery would play a more important role for Vygotsky;
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.9, p. 35)
Both Vygotsky and Piaget would suggest that children learn a great deal from playing in a sandbox.
How would they differ in what children would gain from playing in the sandbox?
What would Vygotsky and Piaget each have to suggest about the most valuable use children can obtain
while playing in a sandbox?
Information-Processing Theory
LO 2.10 How does information-processing theory explain the findings of developmental
psychologists such as Piaget and Vygotsky?
The goal of information-processing theory is to explain how the mind manages information. Theorizing
about and studying memory processes are central to information-processing theory. Information-
processing theorists use the computer as a model of human thinking, with memory processes central to
their study. Memory research assumes that the memory system is made up of multiple components and
that information moves through the components in an organized way. Information first enters your
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.10, pp. 35-36)
What do you think? Does information-processing theory explain Piaget’s stages?
Evaluation of Cognitive Theories
LO 2.11 What are some of the important contributions of the cognitive theories?
Piaget’s research findings have been replicated in virtually every culture and in every cohort of children
since his work was first published in the 1920s. His contributions to development include the following:
▪ He authored a theory that forced psychologists to think about child development in a new way.
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 2.11 p. 38)
Research Report: Piaget’s Clever Research
Try Piaget’s techniques and report the results to the class.
At times Piaget was wrong about the ages at which children develop specific skills. Although his
sequence has been substantiated, children often learned skills at an earlier age than Piaget suggested. He
was probably wrong about the generality of the stages themselves—not all children of the same age are
able to do the same tasks. The whole process seems to be a great deal less stage-like than Piaget
proposed.
At present, there is insufficient evidence to either support or contradict most of Vygotsky’s ideas. Studies
have shown that children in pairs and groups do produce more sophisticated ideas than individual children
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.11, pp. 36-37)
How well do these cognitive theories explain development?
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 2.8-2.11, pp. 33-38)
What are the pros and cons of educating parents and teachers about Piaget’s stages of cognitive
development? That is, to what extend might parents and educators who learn Piaget’s stages
overestimate or underestimate children’s abilities?
BIOLOGICAL AND ECOLOGICAL THEORIES (pp. 38-41)
Theories that propose links between physiological processes and development represent one of the most
Behavior Genetics
LO 2.12 How do behavior geneticists explain individual differences?
Behavior genetics focuses on individual differences. Traits are said to be influenced by genes when
related people, such as children and their parents, are more similar than those who are unrelated. It has
shown that heredity affects a broad range of behaviors and traits and that they are fairly stable across the
lifespan.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.12, pp. 38-39)
Encourage the class to speculate as to what we would be like if heredity was the only factor involved in
the formation of psychological characteristics.
Behavior geneticists also study how individuals’ genetic make-up influences the environments in which
they are developing, a phenomenon that could occur via either or both of two routes.
▪ The child inherits his genes from his parents, who also create the environment in which he is growing
Ethology and Sociobiology
LO 2.13 What kinds of behaviors are of interest to ethologists and sociobiologists?
The relationship between individuals and the setting in which they develop is the emphasis of ecological
theories, perspectives that view development as resulting from the degree to which genes help or hinder
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.13, pp. 39-40)
Conduct a debate as to the pros and cons of the biological theories.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory
LO 2.14 What is the main idea of Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory?
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory explains development in terms of relationships between people
and their environment, or contexts, as Bronfenbrenner calls them. He attempts to classify all the
individual and contextual variables that affect development and to specify how they interact. The
contexts of development are like circles within circles.
▪ The outermost circle, the macrosystem (cultural context) contains the values and beliefs of the culture
in which a child is growing up.
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 2.12-2.14, pp. 38-41)
Like the learning theories you read about earlier in the chapter, behavior genetics, ethology,
sociobiology, and bioecological theories, to varying degrees, consider the role of the environment in
development. But what are some of the important differences between learning theories and the
perspectives that are described in this section?
COMPARING THEORIES (pp. 41-44)
Assumptions About Development
LO 2.15 What assumptions do the three families of theories make about development?
A theory’s assumptions refer to its answers to three questions about development.
▪ Active or passive—Is a person active in shaping her own environment, or is she a passive recipient of
environmental influences?
Usefulness
LO 2.16 On what criteria do developmentalists compare the usefulness of theories?
There are a few general criteria most psychologists use to evaluate the usefulness of a theory.
▪ Does the theory generate predictions that can be tested with scientific methods?
▪ Is the theory heuristic (does it stimulate thinking and research)?
▪ Is it of practical value?
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 2.16, p. 43)
What do you think? Using these criteria, how useful is each of the theories discussed in the chapter?
Eclecticism
LO 2.17 What is eclecticism?
Today’s developmental scientists try to avoid the kind of rigid adherence to a single theoretical
Critical-Thinking Questions (Learning Objectives 2.15-2.17, p. 41-44)
Which of the many theories in this chapter do you find to be most useful to your own efforts to
understand development? What are the theory’s assumptions, and how does it compare to the criteria for
usefulness? Finally, what other theories could be used along with it to broaden your understanding of
development?
LECTURE ENHANCERS
Psychoanalytic Approaches
The family of theoretical approaches loosely falling under the heading “psychoanalytic” makes some very
clear assumptions about human behavior. Although individual theories within this approach differ in
some significant ways, they are placed together because of their commonalties. Psychoanalytic
Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
Freud assumed that humans are hedonistic, selfish, sexual, and aggressive beings. Freud also understood
that people do not always attempt to harm others, nor do they always attempt to fulfill their sexual urges.
This presented Freud with a paradox. An attempt to explain this paradox is at the heart of Freud’s theory
about personality development. Freud felt that personality (in its complete form) is made up of three
elements. These elements are: id, ego, and superego.
▪ We are born with id and it represents our biological urges. Freud felt that we are driven by aggressive
and sexual urges—these are the biological urges that underlay the id. When we are born, this is who
The implications of this theory of personality development are quite profound. If an individual does not
learn to deal effectively with reality (if ego is not strong enough, for example), id may get what it wants
but not do so safely. This could result in being put in prison, or even being killed if someone decides they
really are not going to let you have their money. Likewise, a superego that is too strong may believe that
rules should never be broken regardless of the circumstances. Many expectant parents have broken the
speed limit on the way to the hospital, which would violate one of the rules that superego has accepted.
Healthy personality development depends upon a healthy balance of these three aspects of personality.
To the extent that these three are in balance, a healthy personality is possible. If they are out of balance,
Erikson’s theory is important in the lifespan development literature for several reasons. First, unlike
Freud’s theory that assumes that most of our development will be completed by the time we are about five
or six, Erikson clearly believed that development occurs throughout the lifespan. Second, Erikson’s
theory challenges the assumption that crisis is always bad.
Erikson believed that all individuals would progress through the stages of development systematically
throughout the lifespan. In this fashion, Erikson felt it was possible to understand someone’s behaviors to
the extent that we understand what phase of life they are in (and, therefore, what crisis they are
confronting).
Learning Theories
Learning theories of development make very different assumptions about human development. Freudian
Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Early research on learning focused on how organisms associate two events. In other words, how do we
learn that two events go together? Research by Ivan Pavlov in the early 1900’s addressed this very issue.
Pavlov was doing research on digestion in dogs, noting that they would salivate when food was placed in
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Such learning of associations, however, seems insufficient to explain more complex behaviors like
learning to drive a car or learning to do algebra. A second type of learning is needed. This type of
learning has been called operant conditioning. The most influential advocate of this type of learning was
B. F. Skinner. He felt that individuals become the persons they do because of their reinforcement
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Learning Theory
Albert Bandura expanded on traditional learning theory by suggesting that learning can take place through
Cognitive Theories
Cognitive theories focus on how changes in the ways individuals think bring about changes in their
behaviors, their personalities, and their basic interactions with other persons. What are the implications of
viewing development along cognitive lines? Piaget assumed that individuals build theories (schemes)
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
Media
▪ MyPsychLab—MyPsychLab contains a variety of engaging activities and assessments that aid in
teaching and learning, including the following tools:
o Writing Space. A single place to create, track, and grade writing assignments, provide writing
MyPsychLab.
▪ MyPsychLab Connections
o Explore: The Id, Ego, and Superego, p. 25
o Watch: Introduction to Human Development: Erik Erikson, p. 26