CHAPTER 16
SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
RESOURCES-AT-A-GLANCE
Detailed Outline
Learning
Objectives
Instructor’s Resources
Test Bank
MyPsychLab Connections
Chapter Introduction pp. 399-400
PowerPoint Slides
1-4
Sketchnote Video
Middle Adulthood
Theories of Social and Personality
Development pp. 400-402
Erikson’s Generativity versus
Stagnation Stage
Midlife Crisis: Fact or Fiction
16.1
16.2
Lecture Enhancer
Mentoring
PowerPoint Slides
5-11
MC 1-16
FI 76–79
SA 91–95
ES 106–107
Changes in Relationships
and Personality pp. 402-408
Partnerships
16.3
Lecture Enhancer
Life Transitions in Middle
Adulthood
MC 17-50
FI 80–86
SA 96-102
Watch
Middle Adulthood: Family
Relationships in Middle
Job Performance
Unemployment and Career Transitions
16.9
16.10
SA 103-105
ES 111
Midlife Career Issues pp. 409-413
Work Satisfaction
16.8
PowerPoint Slides
31–38
MC 51-75
FI 87–90
Watch
Middle Adulthood: Perspectives
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
In Western culture, middle-aged adults are viewed as highly competent and capable of assuming
important family and occupational roles. Consequently, in most families, the middle-aged cohort
For Erikson, the primary task of middle adulthood is the development of generativity through mentoring
younger individuals. Vaillant proposed two additional stages to Erikson’s theory: career consolidation
and keeper of the meaning. There is little empirical support for the popular notion of a “midlife” crisis, as
described by Levinson. The life events approach focuses on normative and non-normative event and how
adults respond to them. The stresses of the events of middle age are often complicated by role conflict.
Marital conflicts decline in middle age leading to higher levels of relationship satisfaction. Middle-aged
adults are “sandwiched” between younger and older cohorts. They provide assistance and advice both up
and down the generational chain. Most adults become grandparents sometime in the middle adult years.
For most, the role is a very rewarding one. A small proportion of middle-aged adults become primary
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing Chapter 16, students should be able to answer the following questions:
16.1 How do the views of Erikson and Vaillant differ with regard to generativity?
16.2 How do proponents of the midlife crisis and the life events perspective approach middle age
differently?
16.3 What contributes to the “mellowing” of partnerships in middle adulthood?
16.4 How do multigenerational caregiving and caregiver burden affect middle-aged adults’ lives?
16.5 How does the grandparent role affect middle-aged adults?
KEY TERMS
life events approach (p. 401)
multigenerational caregivers (p. 403)
role conflict (p. 402)
INTEGRATED CHAPTER TEACHING NOTES
THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT (pp. 400-402)
Erikson’s Generativity versus Stagnation Stage
16.1 How do the views of Erikson and Vaillant differ with regard to generativity?
Middle-aged adults are in Erikson’s generativity versus stagnation stage. Their developmental task is to
acquire a sense of generativity, which involves an interest in establishing and guiding the next generation.
It involves not only bearing and rearing one’s own children, but in more symbolic ways, such as teaching,
Research on Generativity
Erikson’s theory raises questions about the impact of childlessness on adult development. Researchers
from a longitudinal study found that the way a man responded earlier to his childlessness was predictive
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.1, pp. 400-401)
Make a list of ways to express generativity other than by bringing up your own children and helping them
get a start in life.
Vaillant’s Revision of Erikson’s Theory
Psychiatrist George Vaillant has spent the past three decades chronicling the development of several
hundred adults through early, middle, and late adulthood. His findings for the middle adulthood period
prompted him to propose a modification of Erikson’s theory of lifespan development.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.1, p. 401)
Give examples of behavior of middle-aged adults in each of Vaillant’s phases.
Midlife Crisis: Fact or Fiction?
16.2 How do proponents of the midlife crisis and the life events perspective approach middle age
differently?
The crisis concept is central to Erikson’s theory, and a midlife crisis has been part of several other
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.2, p. 401)
What is your stereotype of a midlife crisis in a man? Is it different for a woman? Why?
When developmentalists look at the research, they often question this conclusion. Some
developmentalists argue that a life events approach to explaining the unique stresses of the middle
adulthood period is preferable to a theoretical perspective that proposes a universal crisis. The life-events
approach focuses on normative and non-normative events and middle-aged adults’ responses to them.
▪ The physical changes of middle-adulthood are the backdrop against which the major life events of
this period are played out. Consequently, all middle-aged adults are dealing with new stressors for
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.2, pp. 401-402)
What other stresses are common in middle adulthood?
Some developmentalists argue that the best way to understand middle adulthood is to study how people in
this age group manage to integrate all of these changes and their interpretations of them into the coherent
stories of their own middle adulthood experiences.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.2, p. 402)
Give examples to distinguish role conflict from role strain.
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 16.1-16.2, pp. 400-402)
How could the stage models of Erikson and Vaillant be integrated with the life events approach to provide
a more comprehensive description of middle adulthood than any of them could alone?
CHANGES IN RELATIONSHIPS (pp. 402-408)
MyPsychLab Connections
Watch: Middle Adulthood: Family Relationships in Middle Adulthood across Cultures, p. 402
Partnerships
16.3 What contributes to the “mellowing” of partnerships in middle adulthood?
Evidence suggests that, on average, marital stability and satisfaction increase in midlife as conflicts over
child-rearing and other matters decline. As couples get older, the number of shared friends they have
increases as the number of non-shared friends decreases. As a result, the social network tends to get a bit
tighter in middle age. This may be one reason for age-related improvements in relationship satisfaction.
Improvement in marital satisfaction may also derive from middle-aged adults’ increased sense of
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.3, p. 403)
Can you think of other reasons why marital stability and satisfaction may increase in middle adulthood?
As age-related increases in marital satisfaction would predict, middle-aged couples are far less likely to
The Role of Caregiver
16.4 How do multigenerational caregiving and caregiver burden affect middle-aged adults’ lives?
When looking at family relationships from the perspective of middle age, we have to look in both
directions: down the generational chain to relationships with grown children, and up the chain to
relationships with aging parents. Each of the positions in a family generational chain has certain role
prescriptions. In middle adulthood, the family role involves not only giving assistance in both directions
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.4, pp. 403-405)
Give examples of the type of help middle-aged adults might give their grown children and their parents.
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 16.4, p. 404)
Research Report: The Empty Nest and the Revolving Door?
Give real-life examples of people you know who experienced the empty nest and the revolving door?
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 16.4, p. 405)
No Easy Answers: Who Cares for Aging Parents?
Speculate as to how the role of caregiver of an aging parent may change in the next few decades.
Grandparenting
16.5 How does the grandparent role affect middle-aged adults?
Middle-aged adults typically move into several new roles—for example, becoming in-laws as their
children marry.
Feature Box Activities (Learning Objective 16.5, p. 407)
Developmental Science at Home: Me, a Mother-in-Law?
What are some of the negative stereotypes associated with mothers-in-law? Why do you suppose they
exist? Can you think of other suggestions for avoiding conflict for a mother-in law? How could a father-
in-law assist in keeping the peace? How about the grown children and their spouses?
In addition, in the United States, about a third of adults become grandparents by their late 40s, and half of
Cherlin and Furstenberg identify three basic styles of grandparenting:
▪ Grandparents with remote relationships see their grandchildren relatively infrequently and have little
direct influence over their grandchildren’s lives. The most common reason for this remoteness is
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.5, p. 406)
List the advantages for the children and for the grandparents of having a warm and loving relationship
with each other.
Friends
16.6 How do social networks change during middle adulthood?
The scant research on friendships in middle adulthood suggests that the total number of friendships is
lower than in young adulthood. At the same time, there are other bits of research suggesting that midlife
friendships are as intimate and close as at earlier ages. Carstensen found that the frequency of
interactions with a best friend dropped between age 17 and age 50, but that the closeness of the best–
friend relationship remained high.
The social network of middle-aged adults is relatively small, although relationships are just as intimate as
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.6, p. 407)
Continuity and Change in Personality
16.7 What is the evidence for continuity and change in personality throughout adulthood?
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.7, p. 408)
Has your personality changed since you were younger? In what ways? How do you expect it to change
as you get older?
A stable set of personality traits called the Big Five emerge during middle childhood. Many studies show
that the Big Five are relatively stable from childhood to old age. There are subtle age-related changes in
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.7, p. 408)
Why do you think that some traits decline with age while some increase?
Studies of negative and positive emotionality suggest a similar pattern. Even though negative
emotionality in early adulthood is moderately to strongly correlated with negative emotionality in middle
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 16.3-16.7, pp. 402-408)
In your view, how do the changes in social relationships that are described in this section contribute to
maintaining some personality traits while modifying others in middle age?
MIDLIFE CAREER ISSUES (pp. 408-413)
MyPsychLab Connections
Watch: Middle Adulthood: Perspectives on Work and Career Path, p. 409
Watch: Transitioning to Retirement: Mary and George, p. 412
Work Satisfaction
16.8 What factors influence work satisfaction in middle adulthood?
There are many aspects of life that improve with age. Interestingly, middle-aged workers are less likely
than younger workers to experience burnout. People with burnout lack energy and feel emotionally
drained and are pessimistic about the possibility of changing their situations. People who feel their work
is unappreciated and are more subject to burnout than others. Middle-aged workers who have avoided
burnout in high stress professions are those who have learned to pace themselves and to rely less on
external sources of job satisfaction.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.8, p. 409)
Why do you suppose men and women cope differently with challenges in the workplace?
Despite their differences, both men and women in midlife have a greater sense of control over their work
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.8, p. 409)
What are ways to direct our behavior to allow us to maintain levels of personal satisfaction even in
unpleasant circumstances?
Job Performance
16.9 What strategies do middle-aged workers use to maintain job performance at a satisfactory level?
Paul and Margaret Baltes argue that maintaining high productivity or job performance is possible because
adults, faced with small but noticeable erosions of cognitive or physical skill, engage in a process called
“selective optimization with compensation.” Three sub-processes are involved:
Unemployment and Career Transitions
16.10 What factors contribute to career transitions in midlife?
In today’s rapidly changing job market, it is not unusual for men and women to change occupations.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.10, p. 410)
Why does it matter if a person is an involuntary or a voluntary career changer? Is there a difference in the
amount of distress experienced by a person who loses their job, but can get another job in the same field,
than a person who must change careers to accommodate for the changing economy? Why?
Involuntary Career Changers
Involuntary career changers are people who are in transition because of external reasons: Their skills
have become obsolete, their jobs have been eliminated through organizational restructuring, or they have
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.10, p. 425)
Identify several factors that interact to increase the rate of separation and divorce after one spouse
becomes unemployed.
Predictably, the Big Five personality dimensions, especially neuroticism and openness to experience,
contribute to mental health during involuntary career transitions across all racial and ethnic groups. The
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.10, p. 411)
Personality traits are, by definition, an integral part of who we are as a person. How, then, can we help a
friend or family member with neuroticism or a lack of openness to experiences cope with an involuntary
job loss?
As with all types of stress, the effects of unemployment can be partially buffered by having adequate
Voluntary Career Changers
Voluntary career changes leave one career to pursue another for a variety of internal reasons, such as
finding a new job that is more fulfilling. Some people look at the next step in the career ladder and decide
to change careers instead. Others change careers to express aspects of their personalities that they believe
are not utilized in their present jobs.
Twin studies suggest that the tendency to change careers voluntarily in adulthood may have a genetic
basis, and that such transitions may be a by-product of personality. Specifically, voluntary job changers
appear to be people who have a higher tolerance for risk-taking than people who seldom actively seek to
change jobs. Most also appear to be people who do not regard either working or job-seeking as
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.10, pp. 411-412)
Which type of career change—voluntary or involuntary—do you believe would be harder for you to cope
with? Which would be harder on your family? Why?
Preparing for Retirement
16.11 How do Baby Boomers differ from previous cohorts with respect to preparation for retirement?
Many middle-aged adults begin to prepare for retirement in various ways, often as early as 15 years
before their anticipated date. One aspect of preparation is a gradual reduction in workload.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.11, p. 412)
Think about the lives of the middle-aged people you know. Do any of them seem to be winding down
their involvement in work?
The retirement preparations of the Baby Boom cohort are quite different from those of their parents.
▪ Among their parents, retirement planning was primarily a male responsibility; Baby Boom women
are also doing retirement planning.
▪ Instead of transitioning directly from a full-time career to full-time retirement, most Baby Boomers
What do Boomers plan to do with all that time? Gerontologist Ken Dychtwald found that Baby Boomers
intend to continue working into retirement, but most intend to combine paid work with other pursuits. He
identified five distinct approaches to what those non-work pursuits should be:
▪ Wealth Builders intend to spend their spare time finding new ways to make money and building upon
the wealth that they have already accumulated.
▪ Anxious Idealists would like to do volunteer work and give money to charity after they retire, but
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 16.11, pp. 412-413)
Speculate as to the retirement possibilities and plans of members of the Generation X cohort. How are
they similar to and different from the Baby Boomers?
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 16.8-16.11, pp. 409-413)
How do the retirement plans of baby boomers fit in with the stage and life events approaches to middle
age that you learned about at the beginning of the chapter?
LECTURE LAUNCHERS
Mentoring
Erikson’s theory includes the manner in which individuals define the purpose of their lives. Having
children, satisfying careers, or feeling that one’s professional life was meaningful for others, enhances
feelings of generativity. One method for giving back to others or guiding the next generation is
mentoring. With mentoring, the individual becomes significantly involved with the training of others.
Usually mentoring involves the older generation imparting its knowledge to the next. Such opportunities
can be particularly important during middle adulthood because they can help the individual compensate
for other life events that may be causing her to question her purpose in life.
Many mentoring programs have been developed including the following:
▪ senior volunteers
With each of these kinds of programs, the older individual provides guidance, advice, and services that
call upon their vast knowledge and experience base. These activities can aid the individual in his or her
quest for generativity because it keeps her active, relies upon the experience and skills that have been
honed for so many years, and comes at a time when the search for such meaning is high.
Life Transitions in Middle Adulthood
Middle adulthood brings with it the very real possibility of major life transitions. Unfortunately, not all
of these life transitions will be positive. The middle-aged adult, if a parent, will be faced with the
departure of the grown children and the possibility of becoming a grandparent. In addition, the individual
in middle adulthood may face the realization that his or her parent(s) may need to be cared for, and the
possibility of retirement. Each of these transitions could have a profound effect on the individual. The
By most accounts, marital satisfaction increases during middle adulthood. There could be many different
explanations for this including the following:
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
Media
▪ MyPsychLab—MyPsychLab contains a variety of engaging activities and assessments that aid in
teaching and learning, including the following tools:
o Writing Space. A single place to create, track, and grade writing assignments, provide writing
▪ MyPsychLab Connections
o Watch: Middle Adulthood: Family Relationships in Middle Adulthood across Cultures, p. 402
o Watch: Sandwich Generation: Amy, 42 Years Old, p. 404