CHAPTER 12
SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
IN ADOLESCENCE
RESOURCES-AT-A-GLANCE
Detailed Outline
Learning
Objectives
Instructor’s Resources
Test Bank
MyPsychLab Connection
Chapter Introduction pp. 295-296
PowerPoint Slides
1-4
MC 1
FI 76
Sketchnote Video
Adolescence
Theories of Social and Personality
Development pp. 296-299
PowerPoint Slides
5-13
MC 2-20
FI 77–78
Watch
Adolescence Identity and Role
Being Gay in High School, p. 316
Moral Development pp. 304-312
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Reasoning
Causes and Consequences of Moral
Development
12.7
12.8
PowerPoint Slides
26–41
MC 35-56
FI 83-86
SA 97-102
ES 110–111
Simulate
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development, p. 304
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The social and personality development of adolescents is strongly influenced by the process of identity
development. Other factors influencing development include changes in adolescents’ self–concept and
social relationships. The development of moral reasoning is also considered.
For Freud, the primary developmental task of the genital stage is to channel the libido into a healthy
sexual relationship, whereas Erikson emphasizes the development of the identity. James Marcia’s study
Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral reasoning, organized into three levels. These levels are loosely
correlated with age, develop in a specified order, and appear in this same sequence in all cultures studied
so far. The acquisition of cognitive role-taking skills is important to moral development, but the social
environment is important as well. Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized by theorists who place more
emphasis on learning moral behavior and others who believe that moral reasoning may be based more on
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing Chapter 12, students should be able to answer the following questions:
12.1 What happens during Erikson’s identity-versus-role-confusion stage?
12.2 How does Marcia explain identity development?
12.8 What are some important causes and effects in the development of moral reasoning?
12.9 How has Kohlberg’s theory been criticized?
KEY TERMS
identity achievement (p. 297)
identity crisis (p. 297)
identity diffusion (p. 297)
identity versus role confusion (p. 296)
moratorium (p. 297)
postconventional morality (p. 307)
preconventional morality (p. 306)
role-taking (p. 308)
INTEGRATED CHAPTER TEACHING NOTES
THEORIES OF SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT (pp. 296-299)
MyPsychLab Connections
Watch : Adolescent Identity and Role Development, p. 297
Psychoanalytic Perspectives
LO 12.1 What happens during Erikson’s identity-versus-role-confusion stage?
According to Freud, the post-pubertal years constitute the last stage of personality development, so both
adolescents and adults are in what Freud called the genital stage, the period during which psychosexual
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.1, p. 296)
How might Freud explain the recent trend toward delaying childbearing until after establishing a career or
deciding not to have any children?
Erikson proposed that achievement of a sense of personal identity is a far more important task faced by
adolescents than achieving sexual maturity. He described identity as a sense of self-continuity. It may be
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.1, p. 296)
Adolescence is not the only time in our lives when we make decisions about our identity. Why do you
suppose Erikson chose the adolescent period as the time during which the central task or dilemma is that
of identity versus role confusion? Is there another age you believe would be more appropriate? Explain
your answer.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.1, pp. 296-297)
Occupational roles, sexual roles, and religious roles are just some of the adult roles about which teenagers
make decisions. List as many others as possible. Are all of the choices made at the same time? What
events in a young person’s life might prompt early decision-making or prolong the choices?
Marcia’s Theory of Identity Achievement
LO 12.2 How does Marcia explain identity development?
Nearly all of the current work on the formation of adolescent identity is based on James Marcia’s
descriptions of identity statuses that are rooted in Erikson’s ideas. Marcia argues that adolescent identity
has two key parts: crisis and commitment. By a crisis, Marcia means a period of decision-making when
old values and old choices are reexamined. The outcome of the reevaluation is a commitment to some
specific role, some particular ideology. If these two elements are put together, four different identity
statuses are possible:
▪ Identity achievement: The person has been through a crisis and has reached a commitment to
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.2, p. 297)
Give examples of each of the four identity statuses.
The whole process of identity formation may occur later than Erikson and Marcia thought, perhaps
because cognitive development is more strongly related to identity formation than either believed. Teens
who are the most advanced in the development of logical thinking and other information-processing skills
are also the most likely to have attained Marcia’s status of identity achievement.
Research also indicates the following data about identity development:
▪ The quest for personal identity continues throughout the lifespan, with alternating periods of
instability and stability.
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 12.2, p. 298)
Research Report: The Effects of Teenaged Employment
What kinds of jobs might increase the likelihood that employed teenagers had positive experiences?
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 12.1-12.2, pp. 296-299)
The implication in Marcia’s formulation is that foreclosure is a less developmentally mature status—that
one must go through a crisis in order to achieve a mature identity. Does this make sense to you? What is
your current identity status? Has it changed much over the past few years?
SELF-CONCEPT AND PERSONALITY (pp. 299-304)
Self-Understanding
LO 12.3 In what way does self-understanding in adolescence differ from that in childhood?
Through the elementary school years, the child’s self-concept becomes less and less tied to outer qualities
and more and more focused on enduring internal characteristics. This trend continues in adolescence,
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.3, pp. 299-300)
Give examples of how self-concept may influence adolescents’ behavior.
Several aspects of the self-concept appear as a result of research studies:
▪ Adolescents’ academic self-concepts seem to come from internal comparisons of their performance to
a self-generated ideal and from external comparisons to peer performance. Perceived competency in
Self-Esteem
LO 12.4 How does self-esteem change across the teenage years?
Self-esteem shows some interesting shifts during the teenaged years. The overall trend is a steady rise in
self-esteem through the years of adolescence. The rise, however, is not continuous. At the beginning of
adolescence, self-esteem very often drops rather abruptly.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.4, p. 300)
What are some explanations for the drop in self-esteem at the beginning of adolescence?
To study the relationship of self-esteem to important developmental outcomes, such as school
achievement, researchers often divide teens into four groups based on the stability of their self-esteem
rating across adolescence:
▪ The largest group displays consistently high self-esteem.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.4, pp. 300-301)
What are some explanations for the changes in a teenager’s self-esteem across adolescence?
Gender Roles
LO 12.5 What are the gender role concepts of adolescents?
By their mid-teens, most adolescents have also largely abandoned the automatic assumption that whatever
continuum and that each may be found in varying qualities in the personalities of both men and women.
If we categorize people as high or low on each of these two dimensions, four basic sex-role types emerge:
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.5, pp. 301-302)
Ethnic Identity
LO 12.6 How do minority, biracial, and immigrant teens develop a sense of ethnic identity?
Minority teenagers, especially those of color in a predominately White culture, face the task of creating
two identities in adolescence. Like other teens, they must develop a sense of individual identity that they
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.6, p. 302)
How do you think your own ethnicity affects your sense of identity? Do you ever think of yourself as
being “bicultural”?
Many minority families support children’s ethnic identity development by providing them with specific
teaching about how their group differs from the dominant one. They also teach them the language of their
home country. Minority teens whose families engage in such practices are likely to develop a strong
sense of ethnic identity.
Psychologist Jean Phinney proposed that in adolescence, the development of a complete ethnic identity
moves through three stages:
▪ The first stage is an unexamined ethnic identity. Many minorities initially prefer the dominant White
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 12.6, p. 302)
Developmental Science in the Classroom: Role Models in Life and in the Media
In teams, conduct your own study of the portrayal of teachers, athletes, and entertainers in the media.
Compare your results with the study in the text.
Biracial Adolescents
Biracial adolescents experience a different pathway to ethnic identity, one that highlights the difference
between the biological aspects of race and the psychosocial nature of ethnic identity. Biracial siblings
often develop different ethnic identities. Marcia Root proposed a theoretical model that includes the
following four sets of factors that interact with a biracial adolescent’s personality to shape the
development of her ethnic identity:
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.6, p. 303)
Give examples of how the four factors might interact.
Immigrant Teens
Adolescents in immigrant families often feel caught between the culture of their parents and that of their
new homes. Teens from cultures that emphasize community rather than the individual may find
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 12.3-12.6, pp. 299-304)
Which of Bem’s gender role identity categories best describes you? (Look back at Figure 12.3). Do you
think your gender role identity has changed since you were a teenager?
MORAL DEVELOPMENT (pp. 304-312)
MyPsychLab Connections
Simulate: Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, p. 304
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning
LO 12.7 What are the features of moral reasoning at each of Kohlberg’s stages?
Lawrence Kohlberg pioneered the practice of assessing moral reasoning by presenting a subject with a
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.7, pp. 304-305)
How would you respond to the Heinz dilemma? What does your response suggest about your level of
moral reasoning?
Age and Moral Reasoning
The stages are correlated with age somewhat loosely. Very few children reason beyond stage 1 or 2, and
stage 2 and stage 3 reasoning are the most common types found among adolescents. Among adults, stage
3 and 4 are the most common.
Preconventional Reasoning
At level I, preconventional morality, the child’s judgments are based on sources of authority who are
close by and physically superior to himself—usually the parents. Just as his descriptions of others at this
stage are largely external, so the standards the child uses to judge rightness or wrongness are external
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.7, p. 306)
Give examples of moral decisions based on preconventional reasoning.
Conventional Reasoning
At level II, conventional morality, children shift from judgments based on external consequences and
▪ Stage 3 is the stage of mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity,
sometimes called the good boy/nice girl stage. Children believe that good behavior is what pleases
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.7, p. 306)
Give examples of moral decisions based on conventional reasoning.
Postconventional Reasoning
The transition to level III, postconventional morality, is marked by several changes, the most important
of which is a shift in the source of authority. At level I, children see authority as totally outside
themselves. At level II, the judgments or rules of external authorities are internalized, but they are not
questioned or analyzed. At level III, a new kind of personal authority emerges in which individual
choices are made, with individual judgments based on self-chosen principles.
▪ In stage 5, called the social contract orientation, rules, laws, and regulations are not seen as irrelevant;
they are important ways of ensuring fairness. People operating at this level, however, also see times
Kohlberg argued that this sequence of reasoning is both universal and hierarchically organized. That is,
each stage follows and grows from the preceding one and has some internal consistency. Individuals
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.7, pp. 307-308)
Give examples of moral decisions based on postconventional reasoning.
Causes and Consequences of Moral Development
LO 12.8 What are some important causes and effects in the development of moral reasoning?
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.8, p. 308)
Why is role-taking necessary for advancement in moral reasoning?
In addition to cognitive development, Kohlberg believed that the development of moral reasoning also
required support from the social environment. To foster mature moral reasoning, a child’s or teenager’s
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.8, p. 308)
In teams, design strategies to help parents influence a child’s moral development. Share the designs with
the entire class.
As an individual’s capacity for moral reasoning grows, so does her ability to think logically about issues
in other domains. Teenagers’ levels of moral reasoning appear to be positively correlated with prosocial
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory
LO 12.9, How has Kohlberg’s theory been criticized?
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory have come from theorists representing different perspectives.
Culture and Moral Reasoning
Cross-cultural research provides strong support for the universality of Kohlberg’s stage sequence, but his
approach is too narrow to be considered truly universal. Many aspects of moral reasoning found in non–
Western cultures do not fit in well with Kohlberg’s approach. The root of the problem is that Kohlberg’s
Moral Reasoning and Emotions
Researchers who study the link between moral emotions and moral reasoning have also criticized the
narrowness of Kohlberg’s justice-based approach. Psychologist Nancy Eisenberg suggests that empathy,
the ability to identify with others’ emotions, is both a cause and a consequence of moral development.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.9, p. 309)
In your experience, do boys more often operate from an orientation of justice, whereas girls operate from
a caring perspective? If so, share your examples.
Moral Reasoning and Behavior
Finally, critics have questioned the degree to which moral reasoning predicts moral behavior. Moral
reasoning and moral behavior are correlated, but the relationship is far from perfect. To explain
inconsistencies between reasoning and behavior, learning theorists suggest that moral reasoning is
situational rather than developmental.
▪ Neither adolescents nor adults reason at the same level in response to every hypothetical dilemma.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.9, pp. 309-310)
What are some other reasons that a person’s moral reasoning might differ from her moral behavior?
Moral Development and Antisocial Behavior
LO 12.10 What are the moral reasoning abilities and other characteristics of delinquents?
The consistent finding of low levels of moral reasoning among adolescents who engage in serious forms
of antisocial behavior has been of particular interest to developmentalists. Likewise, teens who are
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.10, p. 310)
Can you think of other reasons why cyberbullies choose to bully electronically?
Delinquency is distinguished from other forms of antisocial behavior, such as cyberbullying, on the basis
of actual law-breaking. Thus, the term delinquency applies specifically to adolescent behaviors that
violate the law. Serious forms of delinquency, such as rape and murder, have increased dramatically in
the United States in recent years. Nevertheless, there is a distinction between teens whose delinquent acts
are isolated incidents and those for whom delinquency is one feature of a pattern that includes other
antisocial behaviors such as cyberbullying.
School-aged children and teens who display a consistent pattern of antisocial behavior might be
Psychologists identify at least two sub-varieties of delinquents, distinguished by the age at which the
delinquent behavior begins:
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.10, pp. 310-311)
What suggestions can you offer to the parents of teens with early-onset delinquency?
For young persons whose delinquency appears first in adolescence, the pathway is different. They, too,
have friends who are delinquents. Associating with delinquent peers, however, worsens their behavior,
while the behavior of early-onset delinquents remains essentially the same, whether they have antisocial
friends or are “loners.”
Apart from peer influence, several personal factors contribute to delinquency.
▪ Personality is one factor. Teens who are low in the Big Five trait of agreeableness, low in self–
efficacy for emotional regulation, and high in neuroticism are more likely to exhibit antisocial
Feature Box Activity (Learning Objective 12.10, p. 311)
No Easy Answers: Interventions for Aggressive Teens
In groups, brainstorm ideas for ways to help aggressive teens.
Critical Thinking Question (Learning Objectives 12.7-12.10, pp. 304-312)
How might Kohlberg’s views and those of his critics be integrated to explain variations in moral behavior
among adolescents?
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS (pp. 312-317)
MyPsychLab Connections
Watch: Intimacy in Adolescent Friendships, p. 314
Relationships with Parents
LO 12.11 What are the features of adolescents’ relationships with their parents?
Teenagers have two apparently contradictory tasks in their relationships with their parents: to establish
autonomy from them and to maintain a sense of relatedness with them. The push for autonomy shows
itself in increases in conflict between parent and adolescent; the maintenance of connection is seen in the
continued strong attachment of child to parent.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.11, pp. 312-313)
What are some reasons that parent-teen conflict causes more distress for parents than for adolescents?
Provide explanations from the perspectives of the teenager and the parents.
Teenagers’ underlying emotional attachment to their parents remains strong on average. Levitt
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.11, pp. 312-313)
Why might the teenagers’ bond with parents weaken in the middle of adolescence and then return to
former levels? What might cause it to weaken? What might cause it to strengthen?
Teens that remain closely attached to their parents are the most likely to be academically successful and
Friendships
LO 12.12 What are the characteristics of adolescents’ friendships?
Despite the importance of family relationships to adolescents, it is an undeniable fact that peer
relationships become far more significant in adolescence than they have been at any earlier period, and
perhaps than they will be at any time later in life.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.12, pp. 313-314)
How is the level of cognitive development likely to be correlated to the ability to display intimacy,
loyalty, and faithfulness in a friendship?
Peer Groups
LO 12.13 How do peer groups change over the teen years?
Like friendships, peer groups become relatively stable in adolescence. Although peer influences are often
thought of as primarily negative in nature, social networks have both positive and negative influences on
teenagers’ development. Adolescents typically choose to associate with a group that shares their values,
attitudes, behaviors, and identify status.
The structure of the peer group changes over the years of adolescence. In the late 1950s, Dunphy
identified two important sub-varieties of groups:
▪ A clique is made up of four to six young people who appear to be strongly attached to one another.
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.13, p. 315)
In teams, describe the characteristics of the crowds in each person’s high school; then compare the
descriptions. For example, does the description of “nerd” correspond from one school to another? Was it
easy to identify the differences among the groups or do they overlap? Are the descriptions based on
stereotypes? Does labeling help to identify potential friends or foes?
Romantic Relationships
LO 12.14 How does interest in romantic relationships emerge among heterosexual and homosexual
teens?
Heterosexual and homosexual teens follow somewhat different pathways. For both, the ups and downs
that are associated with early romances are an important theme of development during adolescence.
Heterosexual Teens
Of all the changes in social relationships in adolescence, perhaps the most profound is the shift from the
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.14, pp. 315-316)
Why is social competence in a variety of friendships—with parents, peers, and friends—predictive of the
ease of moving from same-sex friendships to opposite-sex friendships and romantic relationships? Why
not just examine social competence with friends or peers?
Discussion Launcher (Learning Objective 12.14, p. 316)
Girls see romantic relationships as a context for self-disclosure, but boys do not. How might those
perceptions present problems in a relationship? Does it set a pattern for future relationships?
Homosexual Teens
Romantic relationships emerge somewhat differently in the lives of homosexual teens. Researchers found
that homosexual teenagers are more comfortable about revealing their sexual orientation to their parents
and to their peers than was true in past cohorts. The coming out process varies across ethnic groups.
Critical Thinking Questions (Learning Objectives 12.11-12.14, pp. 312-317)
Think back to your own high school years and draw a diagram or map to describe the organization of
crowds or cliques. Were those crowds or cliques more or less important in the last few years of high
school than they had been earlier? In what ways did the formation of romantic relationships disrupt or
reinforce crowds and cliques?
LECTURE ENHANCERS
Factors that Influence Self-Concept
Adolescence has traditionally been considered an important phase of development, in part, because major
solidification of self-concept and identity occurs. It makes sense that such solidification of self would be
necessary before the individual progresses into the demands and responsibilities of adulthood.
Research suggests that five major factors combine to determine the self-images that one holds:
▪ Immutable characteristics are those characteristics of the person that are obvious and not likely to
▪ The developing child will begin to adopt tentative self-views, or self-images. Through a process of
identity negotiation, the child will try out these roles and gauge how important others respond. For
The adolescent weathers a lot of mixed messages. Parents, peers, society, teachers, and television are all
sending messages about who the teen should be. In many ways, American culture sends very conflicting
messages to adolescents. On one hand, our culture seems to impress on the teenager that he or she “must
be unique.” At the same time, however, peers and others are stressing “but don’t you dare be different!”
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
Media
▪ MyPsychLab—MyPsychLab contains a variety of engaging activities and assessments that aid in
teaching and learning, including the following tools:
o Writing Space. A single place to create, track, and grade writing assignments, provide writing
resources, and exchange meaningful, personalized feedback with students quickly and easily. For
▪ MyPsychLab Connections
o Watch: Adolescence Identity and Role Development, p. 297