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Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
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Lecture Notes
Chapter 8: Group Communication
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to . . .
2. Recommend strategies to prevent groupthink
4. Explain the development of a rhetorical vision using symbolic convergence theory
6. Provide systematic understanding of a professional situation by employing
theories of group communication
Summary
Chapter 8 provides an overview of four distinct theories of group communication. The first
theory, functional group decision-making, delineates specific tasks or functions group members
need to complete to make an effective decision. Next, groupthink provides a means to understand
why group members make poor decisions through a focus on cohesion, structural faults, and
situational constraints (Janis, 1982). The third approach, adaptive structuration theory, focuses
I. Group Communication Defined
A. A group refers to a system of three or more individuals who are focused on
achieving a common purpose and who influence and are influenced by each other
(Rothwell, 1998)
1. A group is different from an aggregate, which is simply a set number of
individuals
2. A group is distinct from an organization which typically involve formal
hierarchies and structured channels of communication
3. In an organizational setting, a team is an ongoing, coordinated group of people
working together (Dyer, 1987)
B. Group communication is different from other forms of communication because there
is a balance between two types of communication
2. Socioemotional communication—that which is focused on developing,
maintaining, and repairing the relationship between group members
C. A group role refers to a pattern of communicative behaviors performed by one
individual considering expectations held by other group members
II. Functional Group Decision Making
A. Gouran and Hirokawa (1983, 1986, 1996) are the key researchers associated with the
functional approach to group communication
1. One of the central purposes of a group is decision making
2. A function refers to what communication does
B. “Why do some groups make good decisions while others make bad ones?” Their
model argues that the answer to this question has to do with whether or not the group
has successfully accomplished five functions, which they call requisite functions
(Gouran & Hirokawa, 1983, 1996)
2. Determine minimal standards—characteristics of an acceptable solution
3. Identify alternatives– group members use brainstorming to generate many
5. Selecting the best alternative based on the analysis of available options
completed in function four
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Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
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C. All five functions need to be accomplished to maximize the likelihood of an
effective decision and that no one function is more important than another
D. Gouran and Hirokawa (1986) posited that three types of communication exist in
small groups
1. Promotive communication is geared toward one of the requisite functions
3. Counteractive communication, or messages that return a disrupted group back
to the requisite functions, is likely to be the most important for group decision
making
III. Groupthink
A. Groupthink is a dysfunctional “way of deliberating that group members use when
their desire for unanimity overrides their motivation to assess all available plans of
action” (Janis, see Miller, 2002, p. 193). It explains and predicts how bad decisions
are made
B. Antecedent conditions
1. Janis (1982) articulated three antecedent conditions to groupthink
a. Cohesion refers to the degree of connection, or sense of solidarity, between
group members. Because groupthink emphasizes the preservation of group
harmony, a high degree of cohesion is necessary for groupthink to occur
b. Structural flaws refer to problems with the way the group is organized
i. Group insulation—a group cut off from others outside of the group
c. Situational characteristics—groupthink is more likely to occur in times of
high internal or external stress
2. Three antecedent conditions are necessary, but not sufficient, for groupthink
Instructor Resource
Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
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C. Symptoms of groupthink
1. Overestimation of the group: These occur when group members have an
inflated view of the group’s abilities
2. Closed-mindedness: These symptoms demonstrate polarized thinking, which
means viewing the world in extremes
3. Pressure toward uniformity: individual group members actively suppress
critical thinking
4. Preventing groupthink
a. Encourage critical evaluation
b. Avoid having leader state a preference
c. Set up several independent subgroups to study the problem and propose
solutions
IV. Adaptive Structuration Theory
A. Poole and McPhee (McPhee, 1985; Poole, 1985, 1988; Poole & McPhee, 1983) use
a general theory of interaction to explain group and organizational communication
Instructor Resource
Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
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processes. Structures are not physical entities but patterns of relationships and
patterns of interaction; they provide guidelines for behavior
1. Structures are the featured characteristics of organizations
2. Structures serve five primary functions in groups and organizations
a. Means for coordination and control
B. Assumptions of structuration theory
1. The first assumption is that people have agency—people have free will in their
performance behavior
a. Structure is not a physical entity but a set of rules and resources used by a
2. The second assumption is that groups and organizations are produced and
reproduced through structures in interaction (Giddens, 1979). This assumption
requires people to understand what Giddens means by the terms structure,
production, and reproduction
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Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
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C. Adaptive structuration theory
2. AST builds on the original theory by adding two concepts that make it
applicable specifically to group communication
D. Adaptive structuration and group decision making
1. The adaptive structuration approach to decision making centers on the extent to
2. Structures influence decision making, by showing a resulting three distinct paths
a. Unitary path—the group uses the same process to generate solutions,
regardless of the types of problems
E. Adaptive structuration and virtual teams
1. AST has also emerged as one of the most frequently used explanations for what
happens in virtual teams (Schiller & Mandviwalla, 2007)
3. The major way AST contributes to our understanding of virtual groups is by
providing a mechanism to understand how and why the technology necessary
4. DeSanctis and Poole (1994) identify five group interaction dimensions
influenced by communication technologies
V. Symbolic convergence theory (SCT)
A. Bormann (1982) based SCT on the notion that group members cooperatively create
and sustain a shared consciousness, including shared meaning, through interaction
B. Central concepts of SCT
1. The most important concept of SCT is a fantasy theme, or a creative
2. According to SCT, fantasy does not refer to something desired or something
fictional; rather, it refers to a creative understanding of events that fulfills a
psychological or rhetorical need (Bormann, 1982)
a. A fantasy theme starts with a dramatizing message: a joke, pun, figure of
speech, anecdote, etc.
b. Continued embellishment of the fantasy theme can result in a fantasy
3. The process of symbolic convergence affects decision making
a. Building a sense of common identity and shared meaning fosters group