Lecture Notes
Chapter 6: Culture
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to . . .
2. Discuss the process of accommodation through convergence or divergence
4. Predict intercultural conflict due to cultural differences in conflict management
6. Provide systematic understanding of a professional situation by applying theories of
intercultural communication
Summary
Chapter 6 discussed four ways of examining culture and communication in the workplace. First,
Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions provide a systematic understanding of communication
differences across cultures. Second, Giles and Coupland’s (1991) communication
accommodation theory predicts an individual’s desire to join the in-group will lead to attempts at
convergence, while one’s wish to remain an out-group member will result in divergence. Third,
we review anxiety/uncertainty management theory which seeks to provide a comprehensive
understanding of how communication effectiveness can be increased by mindfully reducing
intercultural anxiety and uncertainty. Finally, face negotiation theory offers a transcultural
approach to conflict management. Even in single-nation, multiethnic contexts such as the U.S.,
cultural differences in conflict management appear.
I. Culture Defined
A. Culture is one’s identification with and acceptance into a group that shares symbols,
meanings, experiences, and behavior
1. Cross-cultural communication is the comparison of two or more cultural
communities (Ting-Toomey, 1991)
2. Intercultural communication involves the actual interaction between members
of different cultures
II. Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
A. Geert Hofstede (1980) developed an inductive theory of culture gathering statistical
data from 100,000 employees of IBM around the world to determine the values on
B. Individualism–collectivism: This dimension addresses how people define themselves
and their relationship with others
1. Cultures that fall on the individual side share four characteristics (Triandis, 1995)
a. Such cultures consider the individual to be the most important entity in any
2. Cultures that fall on the collectivistic side also share four characteristics
(Triandis, 1995)
a. In collectivistic cultures, the views, needs, and goals of the group are more
important than any individual views, needs, or goals
b. Obligation to the group is the norm in collectivistic cultures; behavior is
guided by duty not by individual pleasure or rewards
c. The self is defined in relation to others, not as distinct from others
d. Collectivistic cultures focus on cooperation rather than competition
C. Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which “people within a culture are
made nervous by situations which they perceive as unstructured, unclear, or
unpredictable” (Hofstede, 1986, p. 308)
1. Individuals in low uncertainty avoidance cultures are more inclined to take risks,
innovate, and value “thinking outside of the box”
D. Power distance refers to the extent to which people with little power in society
consider inequity normal and acceptable (Hofstede, 1980)
2. High power distance cultures accept power as a scarce resource
E. Masculinity-femininity focuses on the relationship between biological sex and what
is considered sex-appropriate behavior (Hofstede, 1980)
1. Masculine cultures use the reality of biological sex in the creation of distinct
F. Long-term and short-term orientation (Hofstede, 2001)
1. Long-term orientation is associated with thrift, savings, and perseverance
2. A short-term orientation centers on a desire for immediate gratification.
Individuals spend money to impress others
III. Communication Accommodation Theory
A. According to Giles and Coupland (1991), when individuals interact with others,
individuals will accommodate their speech and language patterns, either by matching
their partner’s speech or by differentiating their speech and language use
B. Communicating social identity through in-groups and out-groups
2. Moreover, they maintained that these groups shape each person’s collective
identity (Giles & Coupland, 1991)
a. In-groups are social affiliations to which an individual feels he or she belongs
Instructor Resource
Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
C. Accommodation through convergence or divergence
1. Individuals adjust their speech and conversational patterns either to assimilate
with or to deviate from others (Giles & Coupland, 1991)
a. Communication accommodation theory predicts that when a person wants to
be viewed as part of an in-group, he or she will accommodate by convergence
b. Conversely, there are times when individuals don’t want to be associated with
a certain group. In this instance, you will alter your speech through
divergence
D. Extending the theory: maintenance and non-accommodation
1. Maintenance simply is the absence of adjustment. Perhaps the out-group member
2. Non-accommodation includes over and under-accommodation—that is too much
or too little adjustment to make a successful interaction
E. Who accommodates whom?
1. There are differences in accommodation across different groups because these
2. In her research, Larkey (1996) reported that when looking at race, ethnicity, and
sex in the workplace
a. Euro-American male employees typically diverge; that is, they maintain their
communicative style regardless of their conversational partner because it is
Instructor Resource
Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
F. The pitfalls of accommodation
1. Accommodation is not always appropriate or effective (Giles & Coupland, 1991).
2. Consequences of accommodation
a. Convergence
b. Maintenance
c. Divergence
i. Positive effects: protects cultural identity, asserts power differences,
increased sympathy
G. Accommodation and Leader-Member Exchange (LMX)
1. LMX acknowledges that leadership consists of an interpersonal relationship
2. LMX relationships are like in-groups; relationships characterized by mutual trust,
social support, and liking. These relationships are more likely to use
3. Supervisory exchange relationships (SX) are impersonal. Defined by the roles
and the contractual obligations
5. What determines the type of relationship that will develop between any given
manager and employee?
a. LMX relationships are based on liking
IV. Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory (AUM)
A. Influenced by URT, AUM predicts that communication effectiveness and
intercultural effectiveness is a combined result of reducing intercultural anxiety and
uncertainty
1. The key difference between uncertainty reduction theory and anxiety/uncertainty
2. Specifically, AUM posits that mindful awareness of intercultural anxiety and
B. Assumptions
1. One central assumption is that at least one person in an intercultural encounter is a
2. A second assumption is that when a communicating with a stranger, uncertainty
and anxiety abound. Uncertainty is not all equivalent
a. Attributional confidence—appropriately discerning and reducing uncertainty
about the other person’s behavior
C. Axioms: There are 47 axioms, which can be grouped into seven categories. These
help determine the uncertainty and anxiety a person will experience
2. Motivation to interact with strangers—need for predictability, group inclusion,
and identity sustainability
4. Social categorization of strangers—positive expectations, perceived similarities,
and intergroup knowledge
6. Connections with strangers—attraction, interdependence, and the quantity and
quality of contacts with strangers
7. Ethical interactions—respect and dignity for others, as well as engaging in moral
inclusiveness
D. AUM predicts it is only when this anxiety and uncertainty are appropriately discerned
and reduced that effective communication can occur. Effective communication
E. According to AUM, the key to communication effectiveness is mindfulness
(Gudykunst, 2005; Miller & Samp, 2007)
2. Intercultural adjustment—a secondary outcome of positively reducing anxiety
and uncertainty
V. Face-Negotiation Theory
A. Within the context of intercultural communication, the concept of face and social
B. Combining face with cultural orientation
1. Face is the desired self-image an individual wants to present to others (Brown &
Levinson, 1978, 1987; Goffman, 1967)
2. Ting-Toomey (2005) predicts these cultural differences affect face management,
and differences in face management lead to different communication patterns
3. These communication differences can lead to misinterpretation and disagreement
C. Toward a global understanding of conflict management
1. According to Kilmann and Thomas (1977), five conflict styles vary on two
dimensions: assertiveness and cooperation
a. Those who practice avoidance conflict lack assertiveness and cooperation
2. Ting-Toomey (1988, 1991) acknowledged the body of North American research
showing support for the five previously mentioned conflict styles, she also
argued these styles primarily represent a Western view of conflict
a. Ting-Toomey (2017) extends the Western understanding of conflict
management by viewing conflict styles on dual dimensions of self-face
