Instructor Resource
Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
Lecture Notes
Chapter 4: Individual and Social Approaches to Communication
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you will be able to . . .
2. Explain how principles of emotional intelligence help to differentiate transactional
leadership from transformational leadership
4. Apply the axioms of the interactional perspective to generational conflicts in the
workplace
6. Provide systematic understanding of a professional situation by employing principles of
individual and social approaches to communication
Summary
Chapter 4 highlights theories that seek to uncover how individual and social variations influence
the communication process. First, we describe the social role theory of gender, which highlights
how assumptions of appropriate behavior for men and women influence our judgments about
individual men and women in the workplace. Second, we focus on the relationship between
emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. The third theory explained is message
I. Nature Versus Nurture
A. Perception about whether a communication theory places an emphasis on nature or
nurture has much to do with one’s own view of the debate
1. Historically, the communication discipline has focused on nurture, the idea that
social rules and roles impact the communication process
B. More recently, some communication scholars have recognizing the power
evolutionary mechanisms, and especially genetics, play in communication practices
2. Communibiological approach—neurobiological structures create different
C. Theories in this chapter focus on the interplay of individual traits and social
expectations in predicting or explaining communication activity
II. Social Role Theory of Gender
A. Sex and gender: what’s the difference?
1. Sex is genetically determined; it is your biological makeup as either a male (with
XY chromosomes) or a female (with XX chromosomes)
3. One-way people stereotype women and men is in terms of communal and agentic
qualities
a. Communal qualities—stereotypical female attributes; concern for other
b. Agentic qualities—stereotypical male attributes; assertive, controlling,
B. Role congruity theory and leadership
1. Leadership is most often described in masculine terms (i.e., leaders are ambitious,
assertive, and direct)
2. Role congruity theory suggests women in leadership positions experience two
types of prejudice
3. Women then are often caught in a double bind
C. What about actual differences in communication
2. There is support for some gender roles influence communication styles
3. Having a relationship partner who exhibits a feminine style of communication is
positively related to
4. Having a masculine style of communication is associated with
III. Emotional Intelligence and Transformational Leadership
A. Goleman revolutionized thinking about career success claiming the ability to monitor
one’s own and others’ emotions is more powerful than IQ
1. Emotional intelligence (EI) is an ability that explains differences in individuals’
problem solving and relationship maintenance. Specifically, EI is associated with
2. Recent research has tentatively linked emotional intelligence with a concept
called transformational leadership. Bass (1997) argues that the global economy
3. This theory contrasts two leadership styles, arguing that, although both can assist
organizations in achieving goals, transformational leadership is superior
B. Transactional leadership
2. Leaders use bilateral exchange to achieve their goals.
3. There are three primary characteristics of transactional leaders
a. Transactional leaders work with subordinates to develop clear and specific
objectives and promise rewards if these objectives are met (Bass, 1985)
C. Transformational leadership
1. Transformational leadership is founded on attitudes and behaviors that support
organizational change
2. Transformational leadership seeks to inspire exceptional performance (Bryant,
3. Bass (1985) identified four facets of transformational leadership
a. Idealized influence refers to efforts to establish positive attitudes among
employees toward each other and toward the work itself
b. Inspirational motivation requires transformational leaders to present
employees with a clear vision and a desirable future (Bass, 1985)
IV. Three Message Design Logics (MDLs)
Instructor Resource
Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
A. According to O’Keefe (1998, 1997), because people think about communication
differently, they will also construct very different types of messages. A message
B. There are three types of design logics from which to choose
1. The expressive message design logic is a sender-focused pattern (O’Keefe, 1988).
2. A person who uses the conventional message design logic views communication
3. Individuals using a rhetorical message design logic view communication as the
means to create situations and negotiate multiple goals (O’Keefe, 1988). This
C. MDL preferences
1. O’Keefe, Lambert, and Lambert (1997) argued that when two people use the same
2. When two parties use different MDLs, however, these individuals often do not
realize they have communication problems; instead, they blame the differences on
V. Interactional Perspective on Workplace Generations
A. The Palo Alto Group was a meeting of psychiatrists who met and wrote the five
axioms of communication (Watzlawick, Bavelas, & Jackson, 1967)
1. The impossibility of not communicating. All behavior has the potential to be
communicated
2. All communication has a content level and a relationship level
3. Communication is a punctuated series of behavior. It consists of a series of
beginnings and endings, causes and effects
4. Communication entails both digital and analogic codes
5. Communication can be symmetrical or complementary
B. What are the generations?
1. Most authors identify four generations in the contemporary workplace: Veterans,
Baby Boomers, Generation X, and Millennials (also called Generation Y)
a. Researchers found variations in the ways that Baby Boomers, Generation X,
and the Millennials deal with organizational knowledge. Baby Boomers are
found to be more satisfied and more committed than Millennials
b. Twenge and Campbell (2008) studied the Millennials and found that this
generation varies in five ways from previous generations
i. Decreased need for social approval—less likely to follow rules simply
ii. Simultaneous increase in both self-esteem and narcissism. Together,
these characteristics translate into higher expectations for the workplace
iii. The meta-analysis determined that the current generation has an external
Instructor Resource
Dainton, Applying Communication Theory for Professional Life 4e
SAGE Publishing, 2018
iv. Millennials have higher levels of anxiety and depression than preceding
generations, requiring organizations to provide mental health services
v. Women in this generation are more assertive. This will require
c. The interactional perspective also provides possible solutions. Watzlawick,
Weakland, and Fisch (1974) argue there are two types of change
i. First-order change refers to changing the behaviors of individuals in the
system