Chapter 2: Designing Instruction and Assessing Learning
INSTRUCTOR NOTES
This chapter addresses ISTE Standards for Teachers 2, and 5.
Chapter Goal
Understand how to design instruction and assess learning.
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the chapter, students should be able to do the following:
2. List the eight principles of effective instruction for learners.
4. Describe why media literacy skills are vital in today’s classrooms.
5. Describe the types of effective learning assessment.
Chapter Overview
This chapter builds on the framework for learning discussed in Chapter 1. The chapter begins
with an overview of learning theories followed by principles of effective instruction, effective
technology utilization, effective media utilization, and effective learning assessments.
Using This Chapter
The “Principles of Effective Learning Assessment” section offers several possibilities for
teachers interested in exploring authentic assessments. This complements the chapter’s
discussion on learning theories.
Professional Vocabulary
AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT– As a performance-based evaluation of a student’s demonstration of
learning in a natural context.
BENCHMARKS– Standards which students are tested against.
COGNITIVISM– A theory according to which mental processes mediate learning and learning
entails the construction or reshaping of mental schemata.
CONSTRUCTIVISM– A theory that considers the engagement of students in meaningful experiences
as the essence of learning.
FOUR CS– Four skills through which children can acquire academic knowledge: critical thinking,
regulate oneself in the learning process.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES– A concept developed by Howard Gardner, the theory states that not
everyone has the same abilities nor do they learn in the same way. There are nine aspects of
intelligence.
PORTFOLIO– An integrated collection of student work including a variety of media to demonstrate
progress and accomplishments.
RUBRIC– A set of assessment criteria for appraising or judging student products or performances.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY– The study of the effects of the social organization of the classroom on
learning.
STANDARDIZED TESTS– State-wide tests that are administered in a consistent manner and using
the same scoring procedures. These are used to identify student learning that is meeting or
exceeding state standards and to determine where there is a need for improvement.
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
Suggested Materials
2. Post-it notes
4. Television or Internet commercial (pre-record, download, or stream)
5. K-12 text books and other text-based instructional materials
Introduction
Suggested Activity. Ask your students about their own learning styles. How do they learn best?
How do they know when they have learned something? What roles do technology and media
play in their learning?
Learning Theories
BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE
Suggested Activity. Many students have no background in Skinner’s work in operant
conditioning. It would be ideal for students to see or, preferably, participate in an actual animal
conditioning experiment as a way to make operant conditioning principles more concrete and
around the box. It is programmed to respond as a real animal would. By applying previously
learned principles of reinforcement, it is possible to shape the behavior of the simulated rat.
It is possible, however, to offer an analogous exercise in class with no equipment, supplies, or
specialized experience necessary. In this exercise, one of the class members will have his
behavior “shaped.” Actually, you will not be using real reinforcements, so this is really an
analogy or simulation. The procedures are as follows:
• Ask for volunteers to be the experimental subject and select one of them by some random
method.
• Send the subject out of the room.
• Collaborate with the remaining students to choose some simple task to be “shaped.” A
behavior such as standing on one leg with hands on head, pulling down a window shade,
drawing a simple geometric figure on the chalkboard, or the like works well.
• Bring the experimental subject back into the room.
• Conclude the exercise as soon as the desired behavior is achieved. Stop after about five
minutes whether or not complete success has been achieved. (In our experience, it works
out well about 80% of the time.)
If the experiment has failed to some extent, use this to lead into a discussion of where it went
wrong. Interview the subject to find out what might have confused him/her. In any event,
conclude with a discussion of the elements of operant conditioning that were observed. Note that
your procedures did not allow the use of “prompts” as in a prompt-response-reinforce paradigm.
Discuss how the shaping could have been speeded up by the use of prompts, a different form of
feedback, and so on.
COGNITIVIST PERSPECTIVE
Suggested Activity. Cognitivism explores the mental processes individuals use to respond to their
environment. In other words, cognitivism is about how people think, solve problems, and make
decisions. Point out the active nature of the learner in the cognitive perspective. Then, ask your
CONSTRUCTIVIST PERSPECTIVE
The heart of constructivism lies in active learning. New knowledge is created when prior
knowledge is activated and learners actively participate in new experiences. Constructivists
believe that learning occurs most effectively when learners are engaged in authentic tasks that
relate to meaningful contexts
Suggested Activity. Small group research. Divide the class into groups. Each group will use their
laptops or mobile devices to locate a newsworthy current event. The topic might be local,
national, or global but should involve an unresolved problem. Have your students decide on a
1. What problem(s) are my students attempting to resolve?
2. What do I want my students to learn from this activity?
3. How will I activate their prior knowledge?
4. What is the context of the situation or problem?
5. How will I ensure all students actively participate?
6. What is the role of technology in this learning experience?
You may wish to have each group present their constructivist strategies informally.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY PERSPECTIVE
Suggested activity: Group discussion. Discuss some or all of the following as they relate to the
social organization of a classroom and learning: furniture, independent study, small groups,
Information and Instruction
Suggested activity: role-play. Provide an instructional topic and select one student to play the
role of teacher and another to be a student. In a classroom context, the teacher will defend
his/her presentation of information while the student argues that no instruction occurred. Here is
a hypothetical example on the topic of photosynthesis.
Teacher: Bobby, you made a 69 on your science test. What happened?
Bobby: You didn’t teach me about photosynthesis.
Teacher: Yes I did, I stood here and told the whole class about photosynthesis. You must
not have listened.
Bobby: I remember you talking about photosynthesis but I did not learn it.
Teacher: What do you mean you didn’t learn it? I told you all about photosynthesis.
Bobby: I suppose you did tell us but I cannot remember the details. I have to DO
something or I don’t remember…
Allow the role-play to continue for a few minutes, each participant defending his/her point of
view. Then, open the topic for class discussion; what is the difference between information and
instruction?
Principles of Effective Instruction for 21st Century Learners
Suggested activity: Whole group List and number the eight principles of effective instruction on
the whiteboard or other display surface. Have the students in your class number off 1 – 8. Each
number will correspond to one of the eight principles of effective instruction. Provide students
with a few Post-it notes. Set a timer for 5 minutes and ask your students to develop a strategy for
meeting the corresponding principle of effective instruction. Upon completion, students should
online on a virtual pinboard, such as Padlet, or in discussion threads organized by the principles
of effective instruction.
Principles of Effective Technology Utilization
The authors’ emphasize use of technology by instructors and students. The ISTE Standards for
Students specifically outlines expectations for student use of technology to guide their learning.
Principles of Effective Media Utilization
Teachers should guide their students to use media as sources for their learning in ways that are
wise, safe, and productive.
Suggested Activities.
2. View a television commercial and discuss the commercial in relation to the intended
audience, message, medium and setting.
3. View an information or news website and discuss the intended audience, message,
medium and setting.
Have your students determine the accuracy of the above media messages by finding multiple
sources to support or discredit the original media. Point out that the ISTE Standards for Students
addresses many of the skills learners need to be successful consumers of the media resources.
Finally, ask your students to discuss ways in which they might share their media knowledge with
others. How would your students create their own instructional media?
Principles of Effective Learning Assessment
The type of assessment depends on the learning activity. The ability to determine which type of
assessment fits the objective is an important skill for teachers to possess. In addition, the use of
Suggested Activities.
2. Divide the class in half or into multiple groups. Ask half the class to formulate an
3. Examine a lesson plan found on the web. Determine an appropriate authentic assessment.
4. In small groups, explore http://rubistar.4teachers.org to review several rubrics. Discuss
how the rubrics can benefit both the teacher and the students.
Questions for Thought
At the end of the chapter the authors have included Demonstrating Professional Knowledge and
Skills. Included in those questions and activities are opportunities for students to reflect on their
learning. You might wish to expand their reflections by asking questions such as these:
1. Does one learning theory address your particular content area more than another?
2. Which of the eight principles of effective instruction is most important? Which is more
intuitive for a learner?
3. Why is it important for students to engage in lessons that utilize the Four Cs?
4. As a teacher, how do you know when it is the right time to utilize technology and media?
5. Regardless of the assessment type, why are rubrics an important tool?