Chapter 1: Living in a Media World: An Introduction to Mass Communication
Summary and Learning Objectives
Communication takes place at a number of levels, including intrapersonal (within the self),
interpersonal (between individuals), group (between three or more individuals), and mass
(between a single sender and a large audience). Mass communication is a communication
process that covers an entire society, in which an individual or institution uses technology to
send messages to a large, mixed audience, most of whose members are not known to the sender.
Mass communication can be examined in terms of the process of transmission; the rituals
surrounding its consumption; the attention its messages draw to persons, groups, or concepts; or
how audience members create meaning out of media content.
The first communication network was developed by the Roman Catholic Church, which could
send messages reliably throughout Europe as early as the 12th century. In the mid-15th century,
the development of printing made it possible for books and other publications to be mass
produced for the first time, leading to numerous cultural changes. Books, magazines,
newspapers, and other printed media forms became readily available, although they were
expensive before steam-driven printing presses became common in the 19th century.
The electronic media emerged in the mid-19th century with the invention of the telegraph,
followed by recorded music, radio, movies, and television. These media allowed popular culture
to be produced commercially and to be delivered easily and inexpensively into people’s homes.
The first interactive digital communication network, the Internet, was developed starting in the
late 1960s but wasn’t available to the general public until the 1990s. Online media added a return
channel to the mass communication process, initiating a much higher level of audience feedback.
Online media also allowed individuals to disseminate their own ideas and information without
the costs of a traditional mass medium.
The rapid growth of the mass media has led the public and media critics to raise questions about
the effects various media might have on society and individuals. Scholars have suggested that the
best way to control the impact of the media in our lives is to develop high levels of media
literacy—an understanding of what the media are, how they operate, what messages they are
delivering, what roles they play in society, and how audience members respond to these
messages. Media literacy includes cognitive, emotional, aesthetic, and moral dimensions.
Your text suggests that the following seven principles can guide your understanding of how the
media operate: (1) The media are essential components of our lives, (2) there are no mainstream
media, (3) everything from the margin moves to the center, (4) nothing’s new—everything that
happened in the past will happen again, (5) all media are social, (6) online media are mobile media,
and (7) there is no “they.”
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Identify the four levels of communication.
2. Explain the difference between mass communication and mass media.
3. Define three contemporary models of mass communication.
4. Explain the historical evolution of the media world.
5. Define media literacy.
6. Describe the “Seven Secrets” about the mass media.
Review Questions
1. Where did “fake news” come from? What are the forms that it can take?
2. What are the four different levels of communication? Explain how many of our interactions with
mass communication involve several levels of communication.
3. What are the elements that make mass communication mass? Would you consider social media
like Facebook to be mass communication? Why or why not?
4. Some people compare the development of the Internet to the invention of moveable type and the
printing press. Do you think they are of comparable importance? Why or why not?
5. List two of the Seven Secrets and provide a current example of each from the news.
Media Literacy Exercises
Media Use Diary
The goal of this exercise is to learn more about your own media behavior in terms of how you use
the media and how much you use them.
For 1 week, keep a diary in which you log all your media use. Record the medium you used, when
you used it, and what kind of material you were consuming (i.e., what show you were watching,
which book you were reading, what social media network you were posting to). After you have
completed the diary, calculate the total amount of time you spent with each medium (newspapers,
books other than textbooks, magazines, recorded music, radio, television, movies, and the Internet).
Then write a 500-word essay that draws some conclusion about how you use the media, what
benefits you derive from the media, and how you think your media consumption might affect you.
Notes: The goal of this assignment is to get students to engage in some introspection about their
own media use. While many students will just go through the motions of the assignment, a number
will make some real discoveries about their habits.
As always, feel free to use whatever grading scheme works best for you. Here is a criterion-based
system, where I assume that most students will complete the assignment in a competent manner
and should earn a grade of B:
• To earn a grade of B, the student must include all the basic elements: media log, total, and an
essay (350–500 words). The thing to watch for in the essay is a connection between the
media log and what they say in the essay. Poorly done assignments will have exactly the
same media behavior each day and an essay that does not connect to the log.
• To earn an A, the student must analyze the media behavior in light of material covered in
class or that the student has read in the text.
• A student may earn a grade of C if the essay is short, or if student omits totals for each
medium.
• Consider a grade of D or F if the essay falls to a single short paragraph or if the log is
omitted.
Going Dark
I’ll bet you’ve heard adults say that young people do nothing but live on their phones, plug in
their earphones, plop down in front of a screen.
I’ve noticed on campus that whenever there are several students gathered together in a room,
more than half of them will be staring at their mobile device.
What? You say you’re not addicted to your phone, screens, or electronic media? That you could
give them up any time?
Here’s your chance to prove it! You are to “go dark” for 24 hr. That means no use of electronic
media (mass or interpersonal) whatsoever for 24 hr. No phone, no tablet, no computer on the
Internet, no Netflix, no Spotify, no calls, no texts, no e-mail, no television, no radio. Think of it
as the apocalypse! You get the picture.
If you are required to be on Canvas for a class, you can do that. If you must type something for
class, you may do that. But otherwise you have to stay off electronic media for 24 hr. (You might
want to set an “away” message on your e-mail and a message on your phone.)
After you have finished “going dark” for 24 hr, you are to write a 600-word (minimum) essay
describing your experience. When writing your essay, you should include the following:
• When did you go dark? Be specific. Day and date, times.
• How was it? How did you get through the day?
• What couldn’t you do because you had to go dark?
• What media did you rely on when you couldn’t be using electronics? What media would you
normally have consumed this day? Be as specific as possible.
• Based on what we have covered in class, describe the uses and functions of electronic media
in your life. During your time spent dark, how did you fulfill these uses and functions?
(Think back to Chapter 2.)
• Which electronic media were the most difficult to avoid? Why?
• What did you learn about your media habits from going dark? Are there any changes you
would make to these habits?
As always, feel free to use whatever grading scheme works best for you. I use a rubric-based
system, where I assume that most students will complete the assignment in a competent manner
and should earn a grade of B.
Grading Rubric
Criteria
Ratings
Pts
Length
5.0 pts
Superior
Assignment is fully
developed essay that
goes beyond basic
assignment.
4.25 pts
As Assigned
Assignment is
approximately 600
words. Essay makes
effective use of
paragraphs.
3.0 pts
Less than assigned
Assignment is under
assigned length.
Writing has
multiple mechanical
errors. Does not
make effective use
of paragraphs.
0.0 pts
Deficient
Assignment
is
significantly
under
length.
5.0
Criteria
Ratings
Pts
Going
Dark
8.5 pts
As Assigned
Assignment includes
day, date and time of
going dark; discusses
what was missed.
Discusses difficulty of
avoiding all electronic
media.
6.0 pts
Less than
assigned
Assignment is
vague or
incomplete on
one or more of
the required
details.
0.0 pts
Deficient
Assignment
omits
significant
details.
10
Media
Functions
10.0 pts
Superior
Discussion of
functions and media
use adds
understanding
beyond basic
concepts of media
functions and use.
Includes material
from readings.
8.5 pts
As Assigned
Assignment’s analysis
includes required
discussion of media
functions and
learning about
electronic media use.
6.0 pts
Less than
assigned
Assignment is
vague or
incomplete in one
or more of the
required details.
0.0 pts
Deficient
Assignment
omits
significant
details.
10
What do we talk about when we talk about fake news?
The following exercise draws on material that was used to create the opening vignette on fake news
for Chapter 1.
Over the last couple of years we’ve seen a lot of talk about fake news going on. Some of this “fake
news” is satire, some of it is news people don’t like so they call it fake, and some of it is genuinely
made-up news. For this week’s homework assignment, I want you all to read a three-part blog post
I wrote in conjunction with a conference presentation. Budget a bit of time for this. There’s quite a
bit to read there along with a number of links. You don’t need to read all of the links but you’ll need
some of them to complete your homework.
• https://www.ralphehanson.com/tag/what-do–we-talk-about/
In an essay of at least 500 words, discuss the following issues:
• How has the meaning of fake news changed over the years? Discuss with examples.
• Is “fake news” always a bad thing? Why or why not?
• Discuss at least two types of current fake news, with examples. Make sure you describe the
form the fake news is taking and why it exists. (Confused? Look at the Part 3 entry in this
series of blog posts).
• How do you think our media world is being changed by people routinely using the term
“fake news” as a way of insulting news they don’t like?
The goal with this assignment is to get you to move beyond politics and start thinking and talking
about what all this talk about fake news is really about.
In addition to the assigned readings, you should include and reference at least one recent outside
article from a nonpartisan, credible source. Make sure you reference all the articles you use in your
homework.
Criteria
Ratings
Pts
Length
5.0 pts
Superior
Assignment is
fully developed
essay that goes
beyond basic
assignment. Good
citations
4.25 pts
As Assigned
Assignment is
approximately 500
words. Clear where
information is
drawn from
2.0 pts
Less Than
Assigned
Assignment is
under assigned
length.
0.0 pts
Deficient
Assignment is
significantly
under length.
5 pts
Meaning
and
Types of
Fake
News
6.0 pts
Superior
Assignment goes
beyond basic
requirements and
includes well–
developed
examples from
readings and
outside sources.
5.1 pts
As Assigned
Assignment clearly
gives multiple
examples of how
fake news has
changed over time
with support from
readings. Includes
two types.
3.6 pts
Less Than
Assigned
Assignment gives
brief or
incomplete
discussion of how
reading has
changed over the
years, using
minimal
documented
examples.
0.0 pts
Deficient
Assignment
omits multiple
required
details.
6 pts
Is Fake
News
Always
Bad?
6.0 pts
Superior
Assignment gives
multiple, well–
developed
examples of pros
and cons of
different types of
fake news. Uses
5.1 pts
As Assigned
Assignment gives
clear discussion of
pros and cons of
different types of
fake news.
3.6 pts
Less Than
Assigned
Assignment is
vague or
incomplete.
0.0 pts
Deficient
Assignment
omits multiple
required
details.
6 pts
Criteria
Ratings
Pts
support from
assigned and
outside readings.
Personal
Response
3.0 pts
Superior
Assignment goes
beyond basic
requirements
and includes
well-developed
examples
2.55 pts
As Assigned
Discusses how you
feel about effects of
using fake news as
an insult to the
news media.
Contains at least one
supported example
1.88 pts
Less Than
Assigned
Assignment omits
required elements
of the prompt.
0.0 pts
Deficient
Assignment
omits multiple
required
details.
3 pts
Total Points: 20.0
Alternative Methods of Encoding and Decoding Media Messages
The goal of this exercise is to learn more about the way a message is transmitted affects how you
perceive and react to it. Review the section on the process of mass communication. From your
reading of the chapter, you know that the type of medium you use will affect how you receive the
message. With this exercise, you are going to experience alternative ways of receiving mass
communication messages. Do one of the following:
• Watch a movie or television show with the closed captioning on your TV turned on and the
sound turned off. (Your television must have the captioning turned on in order to do this. You
may also use the subtitles on a DVD with the sound turned off.) Be sure to include the name of
the show you watched, what channel it was on, and the date and time you watched it. You can
learn more about the captioning process at the National Captioning Institute (www.ncicap.org).
• Watch a show that features the described video. Described video is the other side of closed
captioning in that it describes the visual information from television programs to those who
can’t see. Descriptive video originated at public television station WGBH in Boston in an effort
to expand program accessibility. Described video is currently available for some programs on
PBS, Nickelodeon, and many DVDs (including Dr. Seuss’s How the Grinch Stole Christmas). If
described video is available for a program, it will be broadcast as the Secondary Audio Program
(SAP) on stereo television sets. Listen to at least 1½ hr with your eyes closed and the described
video turned on. Be sure to include the name of the show you watched, what channel it was on,
and when you watched it.
• Listen to at least 1½ hr of a book on tape by one of your favorite authors. Be sure to include
which book you listened to, the name of the author, and where you got it.
The goal of this exercise is not to understand what it is like to be blind or deaf; rather, it is to
experience alternate forms of media transmission. In a brief essay (400–500 words), explain what
you did and what you learned from the experience. How was your media experience different from
your usual way of consuming programming? What did you gain from the new methods of encoding?
What did you lose?
Notes: The goal of this assignment is to force students to separate the message from its normal
context. Experiencing familiar content (a football game, a sitcom, a movie, a novel) through a new
channel lets students see how much the medium that is used affects the delivery of the message.
As always, feel free to use whatever grading scheme works best for you. I have used a criterion-
based system, where I assume that most students will complete the assignment in a competent
manner and should earn a grade of B.
• To earn the grade of B, the student must clearly state what was viewed or listened to, when
the media consumption took place, and analyze the experience using specific examples from
the item listened to or watched.
• To earn an A, the student needs to connect what was read about encoding and decoding
media content in addition to meeting the standards for a B.
• A student may earn a C if the essay is brief, if the essay simply focuses on how much the
student would hate being blind or deaf, or if the essay has no connection to the specific
program.
• Consider a D or F if the essay falls to a single short paragraph or if specifics about the
program are omitted.
Suggested Readings
• Neil Postman, Amusing Ourselves to Death; Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business (New
York: Penguin Books, 1985): Postman is highly critical of television, arguing that it turns
everything it touches into entertainment. It’s an interesting counterpoint to Joshua Meyrowitz’s,
No Sense of Place.
• W. James Potter, Media Literacy, 9th ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2019): Many of the ideas I
present on media literacy are drawn from this book; a great, in-depth look at media literacy.
This title is one for you, not for your students, most likely.
• All of the Chapter 1 links posted to my RalphEHanson.com blog
http://www.ralphehanson.com/category/chapter-1/
Media Activities
Media Statistics
One of the best sources of news about changes taking place in the media industry can be found in
the incredibly deep Project Excellence in Journalism run by the Pew Research Center at
http://www.journalism.org. Reports include weekly analysis of news coverage and an annual
evaluation of each of the major mass media.
9/11 Television Archive
Here is a link to a week’s worth of coverage, minute by minute, of the September 11th terrorism
attacks from a host of television channels. The news is broken down into 30-s segments. The
archive contains a week’s worth of material from a wide range of networks, including CNN, Fox
News, MSNBC, the BBC, and a range of U.S. network affiliates, along with channels out of Iraq, Gaza,
Russia, Mexico, France, Canada, and Japan. The site also has a big collection of articles about
television coverage of the attacks and links to numerous other related materials:
• http://www.ralphehanson.com/2011/09/01/great-911-television-archive/
Exercises: The possibilities for assignments here are endless. Students can compare U.S. versus
international coverage, Fox versus CNN, or network versus cable coverage.
Zap2It Television Ratings News
Get the daily, weekly, and season-long television ratings:
• http://tv.zap2it.com/news/ratings/
Notes: These statistics can be fascinating to look at. For example, in the fall of 2003, broadcast
television was facing rapidly declining viewership that analysts were having trouble explaining. It is
likely that better programming will recover some of this audience, but media use is in a very fluid
period right now. One report has suggested that the falloff in television watching by young males
aged 16–25 can be blamed on video games!
Remembering Dr. Neil Postman
More than 30 years ago, Neil Postman published his book Amusing Ourselves To Death, which
remains as relevant now as it ever has. Here’s a link to a blog post that includes an old C-SPAN
interview with Dr. Postman:
• https://www.ralphehanson.com/2018/01/08/neil-postmans-amusing-ourselves-to-death-
is–as-relevant-now-as–it–was-more-than-30-years-ago/
Classroom Debate on the Seven Secrets
Take one of the Seven Secrets and provide a real-life example of how you see it working in the
media world around you. Be as specific as you can. While you can use the same truth as other
people in the class, you each need to have separate examples.
Classroom Debate on Secret One: How do you consume media?
Are you a media multitasker? Do you watch a single program from beginning to end, flip from
channel to channel looking for something interesting, or watch two shows at once? Do you surf the
Internet or study while the set is on? Do you think multitasking viewers change the type of
programming broadcasters provide? Why?
Classroom Debate: Using social media
How much are you on social media? Do you post original material, or do you mostly share things
other people have posted? Do you go online to chat about a show as you watch it? Could you even
watch a single show from beginning to end without being on social media?
Classroom Debate: The legacy of fear
For as long as there have been media, there have been those who blame the media for society’s ill.
Others believe that critics are just trying to blame a convenient target. How do you feel about this
debate? Why?
Notes: Although the legacy of fear grew out of concerns about the new mass media during the first
half of the20th century, it has continued to pop-up with each new medium. The “Cyberporn” issue
of Time magazine is a prime example, as are concerns about violent music lyrics and video games.
Which is not to say that there are not legitimate concerns about all these media, but only that the
same concerns seem to resurface each time we see new media. You can build a good research
assignment by having students look for examples of current media criticism that deal with the fears
outlined in the box. Note that an Internet or library search for the term legacy of fear is not helpful
and will primarily return fiction written under that title.