Jandt, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication 9e
SAGE Publications, 2018
Lecture Notes
Chapter 2: Barriers to Intercultural Communication
Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
2-1: List the barriers to effective and appropriate intercultural communication.
2-2: Give an example of ethnocentrism that demonstrates it as a barrier to intercultural
communication.
2-3: Distinguish between stereotypes, prejudices, and racism and show how each is a barrier
to intercultural communication.
2-4: Explain how assuming similarity instead of difference acts as a barrier in intercultural
communication between China and the United States.
2-5: Explain how ethnocentrism acts as a barrier in intercultural communication between
China and the United States.
2-6: Explain how stereotypes and prejudice act as barriers in intercultural communication
between China and the United States.
I. Introduction
Barriers—Six barriers to intercultural communication, Barna (1997).
II. Anxiety
A. When you are anxious due to not knowing what is expected of you, it is only natural
to focus on the feeling of anxiety and be less present in a communication
transaction.
B. For some, anxiety over speaking English properly contributed to avoiding
interaction with U.S. coworkers and limiting interactions both on and off the job.
III. Assuming Similarity Instead of Difference
A. Teenagers may listen to music differently.
B. Meals are conducted in Spain in a calmer manner than the rushing we are used to in
the United States.
C. Children are left outside of cafes in strollers in Denmark but in the United States it
is an offense with jail time.
D. Schools must respect the religious practices of those of other cultures such as
Muslims and the need to have a prayer rug and time to pray facing Mecca. It is
better to ask what the customs are and not to assume anything.
IV. Ethnocentrism
A. Negative judging of another culture based on standards of one’s own culture.
B. All of the nuances of a particular culture make sense when we understand the
culture.
C. Cultural relativism is a less extreme form of ethnocentrism that results in making
simple assumptions, things are the same everywhere. This is also a term called
cultural nearsightedness; taking one’s own culture for granted and neglecting or
ignoring other cultures.
Jandt, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication 9e
SAGE Publications, 2018
D. Eurocentrism ethnocentrism recognizes only Western holidays in schools or only
Western history, schools, music or at. In the extreme, it excludes other cultures and
points of view by restrictive thinking.
V. Stereotypes and Prejudice
A. Stereotypes and Prejudice are a stumbling block to intercultural communication.
The term stereotypes refer to negative or positive judgments made about individuals
based on observable and believed group membership.
B. Prejudice refers to an irrational hatred or suspicion of a particular group, race,
religion, or sexual orientation.
C. Racism refers to prejudice with the exercise of power on or over a group, this may
include historical, institutional, or structural structures (Hoyt, 2012).
D. Stereotypes
1. Stereotyping was coined by Walter Lippmann (journalist 1922) to describe
judgments made about others based on their ethnic group membership.
2. Today this is based on any group membership.
3. Psychologists explain this as mistake our brains make in the perception of
people.
4. Anyone can be stereotyped of stereotype others.
5. Japanese sign language making the little finger twist at the corner of the eye for
Asians and the index finger making a circle for “round eye” foreigner
(Costello, 1995).
6. 2001 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights called for an end to American Indian
logos. 2006 the NCCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association) prohibited
18 colleges and universities from displaying American Indian imagery. 2008
all dance team, cheerleaders, and mascots were banned as well.
7. Cultural Sensitivity versus ethnic stereotyping. The example of American
Airlines in 1997, the flight manual read that Latin Americans like to drink
before takeoff.
8. Profiling refers to law enforcement practices that target and scrutinize certain
individuals based on the likelihood of criminal behavior. Examples include the
September 11, 2001 attack on Manhattan creating a profile of those of Middle
Eastern descent. In 2003, the government banned profiling and in 2014, the
government included religion, gender, national origin, sexual orientation, or
gender identity.
9. Negative Effects on Communication
a. Stereotypes are harmful and impede communication.
b. They cause us to assume a widely held belief is true when it may not be
true.
c. Don Imus lost his morning radio show after referring negatively to the
women’s basketball team of Rutgers University. He claimed it was used
by rappers so he assumed it would be all right to use the same terms.
10. Case Study: Asian Americans
a. The label includes more 30 ethnicities and contributes to stereotype of
some 10 million people.
b. Origins extend from East Asia to the Indian subcontinent, the Philippines
and Indonesia.
Jandt, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication 9e
SAGE Publications, 2018
E. Prejudice
1. During the 1960s they were given the stereotype of “model minority” for their
hard work and successful achievements.
2. The belief that they are silent and become engineers is a contributing factor to
existing prejudice.
VI. Racism
A. White privilege: Peggy McIntosh (1989) compared the term to being in a school
where everything is right-handed and you are left-handed. White is the dominant
culture of social norms and organizations. Racism goes deeper than prejudice. This
includes name calling, ethnic slurs, and communication can change or enforce
racism.
B. White privilege exists in the United States as well as other nations, particularly
South Africa (Drzewiecka and Steyn, 2009).
C. Case Studies
1. The Roma
a. They have no nation-state of their own and often called “Nomads.”
b. In 2010, France deported 1,000 Roma to Romania and Bulgaria and
bulldozed over 300 Roma Camps.
2. Japan and Korea
a. The relationship between Japan and Korea reflects deep-seated and long-
standing prejudice.
b. During World War II, Koreans in Japan were forced to become Japanese
nationals.
VII. Extended Case Study of Intercultural Communication Barriers: China and the
United States
A. Anxiety
1. Not knowing equates to needing more information to reduce anxiety.
2. Understanding and learning more about China’s history people will improve
intercultural communication.
3. History
a. China was ruled by a series of dynasties until the early 20th century.
b. After a revolt Dr. Sun Yat-sen led a nationalist movement in China. He is
hailed the father of modern China.
c. Chiang reversed Dr. Sun’s policy of working with the communists. Mao
took power and by 1945 the Communist Party membership grew to 1.2
million.
4. Economy
a. Deng’s four modernizations—agriculture, industry, science, and
technology.
b. A stock market was established in 1990 in Shanghai: 11.3 trillion
nominal gross domestic product (compared to $18.5 the U.S.GDP).
b. 1.4 billion in 2017, 4.2 times that of the United Sates
6. Regional Differences
a. Beijing is traditional and conservative.
Jandt, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication 9e
SAGE Publications, 2018
b. Hong Kong island was ceded to the Great Britain in 1841.
B. Assuming Similarity Instead of Difference
1. Air Space
a. In 2013, China declared an air defense identification zone including
islands in Japan and the East China Sea.
b. Vice President Joe Biden requested China to avoid enforcement in order
to prevent a crisis.
2. South China Sea
a. China claimed rights of the South China Sea by reclaiming 3,000 acres of
land.
b. China has built at least one military installation on the artificial islands.
3. Broadcast Media and the Internet
a. All broadcast media is owned by the Communist Party of China.
b. China’s regulation of the Internet is referred to as “the Great Firewall of
China.”
c. Google was first blocked in China in 1992.
d. Technology has created the crime of hacking. The United States has
charged China with hacking attacks on U.S. government sites and
companies.
C. Ethnocentrism
1. Status of Taiwan
a. Taiwan is a technologically advanced island of 23 million people.
b. Capitalist economy with full democracy since 1996
2. Tibet
a. Under China’s repressive rule
b. Tibetan Buddhists believe in reincarnation
3. Human Rights and Free Speech
a. Hundreds or thousands were killed in Tiananmen Square demonstrations.
b. Hard line on dissent and penalties for “inciting subversion of state
power.”
D. Stereotypes and Prejudice
1. Energy and Sustainability
a. China consumed 8 million barrels of oil a day in 2009 and continues to
grow.
b. Air quality and energy consumption are major problems.
2. Economic Issues
a. China was admitted to the World Trade Organization after opening its
economy.
b. China’s currency remains undervalued.