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Lecture Notes
Chapter 4: Verbal Communication
Outline and Key Terms
I. Verbal Communication
A. Language has a syntax and grammatical structure, but in conversation, it uses cultural
and relational assumptions.
B. Verbal communication involves the use of language.
C. Language is just a collection of symbols that can be arranged in a particular
order according to a particular syntax.
II. How Is Verbal Communication Symbolic?
A. Verbal communication involves the use of language, which is made up of
symbols.
B. Symbols are arbitrary representations of something else.
1. There is no direct connection between a symbol and what it represents, but the
connection is not totally random.
2. A symbol is used to represent an object because it makes sense to the users.
C. Because of the arbitrary nature of symbols, meanings applied to words are
somewhat ambiguous.
a. There is a degree of agreement on the meanings that should be applied
to words.
b. There is never complete agreement on the meaning applied to any word.
D. Meanings are applied to words, words do not have meanings.
a. Symbols have no inherent meaning.
b. Symbols are given meaning along with value and power when they are
used during interactions among people.
c. It is through the actual use of language that meanings develop.
d. It is through the use of language, along with other symbolic activity,
that relationships, identities, cultures, and realities are transacted.
III. Verbal Communication Involves Meaning
A. Denotative and Connotative Meanings
1. Words, as with all symbols, can be given multiple meanings depending on how
they are used and the circumstances surrounding their use.
a. Polysemy is the term used to recognize that there can be
multiple meanings given to the same word.
b. Since all words can have different meanings, each time we
speak, we must determine which meaning applies.
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2. Denotative meaning is the general meaning of a word.
a. Meaning or meanings in the dictionary
b. Denoting the same object or idea by the same words is a
fundamental requirement for communicating.
c. Conversation works only when people can assume that they share the
same world by using the same words to denote the same items.
d. There is never complete agreement by individuals on the
meanings of any word, but there is often at least some overlap.
e. The polysemic nature of words can make determining intended
meaning a challenging task.
3. Connotative meaning refers to the overtones and implications
associated with a word or an object.
a. Since connotation involves the overtones and implications of a
word, some words carry baggage that can elicit an emotional
response.
b. Patriot connotes good feelings of loyalty, duty, and faithfulness.
c. Traitor connotes bad qualities, such as deceit, two-facedness,
untrustworthiness, and disloyalty.
d. Connotations are extra layers of meaning added to the
denotation of a word.
4. Words carry strong and varying connotations in particular
cultures and within particular relationships.
a. Our ability to understand someone improves as we know more
about the associations he or she makes to certain words, culturally
or personally.
B. Words and Values
1. As a result of their denotative and connotative meanings, words
are generally given particular values in a society.
2. The values associated with words have developed over time and
are reinforced and socially constructed.
3. God Terms and Devil Terms
a. God terms are powerful terms that are viewed positively in a
society.
b. Devil terms are equally powerful terms that are viewed
negatively in a society.
c. God and Devil terms are not absolutes for everyone in a society.
d. Within the United States, democracy has been viewed as both.
e. God and Devil terms also exist in personal relationships.
f. Sometimes a relational partner may act on behalf of society by saying
that another person should not say a certain thing, and this reminds
them of and reinforces societal norms.
IV. Verbal Communication Is Relational
A. Verbal communication influences relationships, and relationships influence verbal
communication.
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1. Whenever you communicate verbally, a particular relationship is presumed
with another person, the members of a group, or an audience.
2. It is through verbal communication and other symbolic activity that
relationships are developed and maintained.
3. Relationships are symbolic creations, talked into existence.
B. Relationships Regulate Verbal Communication
1. Relationships influence the meanings that are given words and the
words that are actually used.
a. “I love you” has different meaning attached depending on the
relationship in which the words are spoken.
n. Relationships influence what words are uttered in the first place.
2. The fact that we would or would not want to say something reinforces
the existence of a particular relationship.
a. With friends, we draw on words differently than we do in other
relationships—work, family, school.
b. Specific relationships are also reinforced through the meanings
and intentions we assign to the words of others.
c. Enemies do not trust each other to mean what they say.
C. Relationships and Shared Meanings
1. Part of becoming closer to other people is learning to understand their
intentions and worlds of meaning.
2. Relationships are transacted in part through shared meanings and
patterns of communication.
a. The understandings shared by people in a specific relationship represent
common understanding and the relationship.
b. No one else shares exactly the exact understandings, common
history, knowledge of the same people, or assumptions that you
take for granted in a specific relationship.
c. When we talk to people, we use words that refer to our shared
history and common understandings that represent our relationship.
d. Relationships presume common, shared knowledge.
3. Conversational hypertext refers to coded messages within conversation that
an informed listener will effortlessly understand.
a. Using the concept of hypertext from Internet terminology
b. In conversation, people may use a word that suggests more
about a topic; on a computer screen, this would show in blue text.
c. In relationships, shared meanings and overlaps of perception
make communication special and closer.
d. We often talk with our friends in coded, hypertextual language,
which seems natural in a relationship.
e. When speaking with others who do not understand the code, we
may recognize that the hypertext needs to be unpacked, expanded,
or addressed directly for them.
V. Verbal Communication Is Cultural
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A. Verbal communication influences culture, and culture influences verbal
communication.
1. Whenever you communicate verbally, cultural assumptions are presumed.
2. Cultural assumptions involve appropriateness and meanings within a given
society.
3. Culture does not just refer to nation-states but any groups of people who share
distinct meanings and styles of speaking or dress.
a. Embedded within these distinct meanings and styles of communication
are the values and beliefs of those cultural groups.
b. Multiple cultural groups exist within larger nation-states, so people
likely belong to many cultural groups simultaneously.
B. Verbal Communication Transacts Cultures
1. Through verbal communication and other symbolic activities, cultures
are developed and maintained.
a. Cultures are symbolic creations.
b. Cultural groups are distinct and brought into being because of
the way in which members communicate.
2. Through relationships, we come to understand cultural ways of
communicating.
3. We learn culturally appropriate ways of talking through interactions.
a. Family
b. Friends
c. Neighbors
d. Classmates
e. Coworkers
C. Cultures Regulate Verbal Communication
1. Cultures influence the meanings that are given words and the words that
are actually used.
a. Some cultures curse more than others.
b. We are so good at communicating culturally and skilled at
moving in and out of various groups that we may not notice we are
doing so.
2. We communicate in unique ways when among members of different
cultural groups because of the meaning systems and norms of those
groups.
D. Cultural Ways of Talking
1. Categories of cultural talk are usually applied to nation-states.
2. This application is not sufficient.
3. Cultural styles of talk have unique meaning systems, values, and styles.
a. Feminine talk is nurturing, harmonious, and compromising.
b. Masculine talk is tough, aggressive, and competitive.
c. High-context talk relies heavily on the context in which it takes place,
words are used sparingly, a great deal is left unsaid, and relationships are
extremely important.
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d. Low-context talk is straightforward, the message itself says everything,
and relationships are separated from the message as much as possible.
e. Collectivist talk stresses group benefit and harmony rather than personal
needs and advancement.
f. Individualist talk stresses individual needs and achievement.
VI. Verbal Communication and Frames
A. Conversational frames
1. Frames assist people in making sense of communication by drawing attention
to how they should be communicating, how they might expect others to
communicate, and how they should assign meanings to symbols.
2. Conversational frames are used to make sense and assign meaning to verbal
communication.
3. Communication benefits when both communicators recognize that frames are
shared.
a. Sometimes frames are assumed.
b. Sometimes frames are signaled by means of various relational, cultural,
and personal cues.
4. Difficulties may arise if people are using different frames of understanding.
a. Sometimes different frames are used unknowingly.
b. Sometimes different frames are used purposefully.
B. Recognizing Frames
1. Multiple conversational frames may be applied when interacting with
others.
a. Relationships and cultures influence how verbal communication
is used and what it means.
b. Relationships and cultures act as frames when assigning meaning to
verbal communication.
c. The physical location can also act as a frame when assigning meaning.
C. Ways of Speaking
1. The form of language selected to express thoughts and emotions carries
important relational messages.
2. The form of language used also enables people to properly frame an
interaction.
3. Forms of language can generally be categorized as high code or low
code.
a. High code is formal, grammatical, and very correct.
b. Low code is informal and often ungrammatical.
c. When interacting with someone in a close relationship and when feeling
relaxed, we are more likely to use low code.
d. High code is more likely used when speaking with someone with whom
we are unfamiliar or someone who possesses greater power or social rank.
e. High code is more likely to be used when we are uncomfortable
or when we view the interaction as formal.
D. Accommodation: Adjusting Relational Frames
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1. Frames can be adjusted during an interaction.
a. We choose particular ways of interacting.
b. We can change them, adjusting to fit another person.
c. We can change them as a result of changes in feeling or in the
relationship that occurs during the course of the interaction.
2. People change the words they use as well as nonverbal communication
to indicate a relational connection with the person with whom they are
talking (accommodation).
3. Two types of accommodation
a. Convergence
b. Divergence
4. Convergence refers to a person moving toward a style of talk used by
the other speaker.
5. Divergence refers to a person moving away from a person’s style of
speech to make a relational point.
a. Dislike
b. Superiority
VII. Verbal Communication Is Presentational
A. Verbal communication can be both representational and presentational.
1. Representational because it can be used to name things and convey information
2. Presentational because it can provide information about the perspective
and worldview of the sender
3. All verbal communication is presentational.
4. Verbal communication’s presentational value is particularly recognizable when
people tell stories and provide accounts.
B. Telling Stories
1. Storytelling is a most important human tendency (homo narrans).
2. A narrative is any organized story, report, or prepared talk that has a
plot, an argument, or a theme, or can be interpreted as having one.
a. Narrative covers what is involved when you explain what
people are doing and why they are doing it.
b. Talk may include funny events, tragic events, significant
emotional experiences, relational stories, or describing one’s day.
3. Narratives are particularly presentational because speakers arrange the
story in a way that provides perspective to the facts.
C. Giving Accounts
1. Accounts are forms of communication that offer justifications, excuses,
exonerations, explanations, accusations, and apologies.
2. Giving an account involves telling a story that justifies, blames
someone for, or calls someone to account for what happened.
a. The facts are presentational.
b. The description of something contains spin that explains the
facts being reported.
3. Accounts occur in everyday conversations.
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4. Relationships affect whether accounts are given and how they are
structured.
D. Kenneth Burke’s Pentad
1. The presentational nature of verbal communication is a fundamental
component of everyday communication and personal relationships.
2. Kenneth Burke’s pentad is composed of five elements that explain the
motivation of symbolic action.
a. Burke was interested in word choices.
b. Burke recognized that the use of words results in meaning
beyond their denotative or connotative meanings.
c. The selection of words provides clues to understanding motives and
provides insight into the perceptions of symbols used.
3. Elements of the Pentad
a. Act: What happened
b. Scene: Situation or location of the act
c. Agent: Who performed the act
d. Agency: How the act was accomplished
e. Purpose: Why the act took place
4. The elements emphasized in a story provide information about the
speaker’s motivation and how he or she wants others to understand the
situation.
a. Stories are not simply narrations of events.
b. Stories are personalized ways of telling.
c. When certain elements of the pentad are highlighted and others
are not, the teller is presenting his or her view of the world.
5. Ratios of the Pentad
a. Pentad elements can be used and understood individually.
b. The elements are also interconnected, like five fingers.
6. Narratives and accounts may use more than one element of the pentad
when framing outcomes or situations as inevitable.
a. Agent: Act ratio uses a person’s character to explain actions.
b. Scene: Act ratio uses a situation or circumstances to justify action.
c. Scene: Agent ratio uses a situation to explain the kinds of characters
who are found there.
VIII. Functions of Verbal Communication
A. Influencing Others: Facework and Politeness
1. People interacting with others want to be viewed favorably.
a. They want to be accepted and viewed with respect.
b. They will also need to affect the behaviors of others throughout the day,
the impact of which can be quite minor.
c. Influencing how others view us and influencing their behaviors
involve facework and politeness.
2. Facework
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a. Facework refers to the management of people’s face.
b. Face means dignity, respect, and acceptance.
c. People want to be viewed in a positive way by others, including
anyone with whom an encounter is shared.
d. People desire positive face regardless of with whom they are
interacting.
3. Face Wants
a. People have positive face wants and negative face wants.
b. Positive face wants refer to the need to be seen and accepted as
a worthwhile and reasonable person.
c. Positive face wants are dealt with and satisfied often through
verbal communication.
d. Negative face wants refer to the desire not to be imposed upon
or treated as inferior.
e. The management of being treated as inferior may be the most
familiar.
f. Face concerns are evident in everyday communication among
those sharing a relationship.
g. Use of either type of face allows us to manage our relationships
by paying attention to the ways people need to be seen in the social
world.
h. Thus, the behaviors are a subtle kind of relationship
management done in talk.
4. Maintaining Positive Face
a. Face is something managed by people in social interactions
(Goffman).
b. People cooperate to maintain positive face for themselves and
others and to avoid negative face for themselves and others.
5. Politeness Theory
a. People must affect the behaviors of others throughout the day.
b. A chance exists that positive face could be diminished and
negative face could be imposed.
c. Not all face-threatening acts are equal.
d. Three things must be considered when determining the size of
the face threat.
1) Relationship shared by the interactants
2) Power difference of the interactants
3) Size of the imposition
e. We need to determine the size of the face-threatening act to help
us determine the best way to affect someone else’s behavior.
f. Politeness strategies
1) Bald on record strategies involves acting directly without
concern for face needs.
2) Positive politeness strategies involve focusing on positive face,
often through flattery or by offering something in return.
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3) Negative politeness strategies involve acknowledging the
possibility of negative face, offering regrets or being pessimistic.
4) Off record strategies involve hinting or presenting a face-
threatening act in a vague manner.
5) Avoidance strategies involve avoiding a face-threatening act
altogether.
IX. Relationships and Everyday Talk
A. Verbal communication is used in the development and maintenance of
relationships.
1. Talk can serve three functions for relationships:
a. Instrumental
b. Indexical
c. Essential
B. Instrumental Function
1. The instrumental function of talk occurs when what is said results in
the accomplishment of a goal in the relationship.
a. What we say reveals a goal for the relationship.
b. Talks is the means or instrument by which the goal is revealed.
c. Anything said that serves the purpose of bringing something new to or
changing anything about the relationship is an instrumental function of
talk in relationships.
C. Indexical Function
1. The indexical function of talk demonstrates or indicates the nature of
the relationship between speakers.
a. We index the relationship in what we say to someone and the
way we say it.
b. The content and the relational elements of the talk occur
together.
D. Essential Function
1. The essential function of talk happens when talk makes the
relationship real or talks it into being.
a. May use coupling references or make assumptions that the
relationship exists
b. The extent to which talk and its nonverbal wrapping are a
relationship is easily underestimated.
2. Verbal communication creates and embodies relationships directly and
indirectly.
a. Direct talk
b. Indirect talk
3. We experience absences, breaks, and separations in relationships.
a. Short
b. Longer
c. Extended
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4. Because breaks occur, there are ways to indicate that the relationship
itself continues.