CHAPTER 7: ADDITIONAL BEHAVIORS ACROSS CULTURES
In this chapter we provide exercises for additional behaviors that are significant across
cultures. These behaviors are related to the concepts presented in previous chapters, for
1990, Lambert et al., 1979, and Cashmore & Goodnow, 1986). Working class families tend to
use punishment and negative reinforcement, for example, “you’re nothing and will never be any
good at anything.” Middle class parents tend to emphasize positive reinforcement and activities
designed to raise self-confidence and self-esteem.
Further, culture is more important than gender. For example, in the general population
The instructor should then ask: Can we rank-order these three factors in terms of their
importance in influencing values, attitudes, and behavior? That is, social class is #1, culture #2,
and gender #3? Use think-pair-share, after which the instructor can make the following points:
* Importance varies by situation.
* Other studies may tend to contradict this rank ordering.
The instructor can make the point that there are frequently more difficulties
communicating between social classes than cultures. For example, many American tourists find
that the French tend to be rude, but when two professionals from the United States and France
meet, they tend to get along well. The instructor can also point out that culture becomes pivotal
when key values are attacted, for example, a war based significantly on the opposing religions of
* Many experts feel that race is not a meaningful category, given the high rates of
intermarriage and couplings. For example, a very large percentage of Americans is of mixed
parentage.
* Social class is more important than race. It is the perception of opportunities that is
crucial. Middle class children regardless of race perceive the world as having more possibilities
SOCIAL CLASS
Same Different
Same
1 2
3 4
Peng (2001) has reviewed the literature in this area and has concluded that institutions,
particularly legal and economic frameworks, are more important for conducting business than
are cultural similarities. For example, the manner in which business is conducted in parts of
China and Eastern Europe is more similar than the manner in which it is conducted between
exercise the class must understand the following material.
As we have suggested, Hofstede provided the impetus for a large and growing body of
important work, much of which emphasized different types of individualism and collectivism.
The research completed by Harry Triandis and his associates (1994) is particularly insightful and
helpful in management, as he identified two basic types of individualism and two basic types of
values and even emotional responses so much so that they are scarcely distinguishable from one
another. Horizontal collectivism represents a high-context or process culture, and it is one in
which there is little leeway given to members to deviate from norms and values. It is also a
culture in which in-group members view out-groups in a frequently hostile fashion.
Under the second type, vertical collectivism, values are widely shared by in-group members, but
involves a reciprocal psychological relationship, that is, followers defer to the headman who in
turn is responsible for looking out for their welfare. For example, a bankrupt businessman will
devote three years to ensuring that his former employees have jobs and are not homeless.
Individualism also is classified as horizontal and vertical. When a culture emphasizes
horizontal individualism, its members make decisions by themselves without worrying about
beyond Triandis and argues that there are four elementary forms of human relations. His work
relies heavily on ethnographic data and integrating the theories and research of other researchers.
Most importantly, Fiske basically employs the theory of numerical data as a metaphor underlying
these four elementary forms.
In statistics it is common to distinguish between the following types of data: Nominal,
within the group are not possible. For example, John is more valued than Mary, and Mary is
more valued than Peter, but it is not possible to say that Peter is twice as valued as John. With
interval data, there is a uniform distance between each point of the scale, but there is no true zero
point, and hence you must compare individuals within a group in terms of each criterion. For
example, Peter may be twice as sociable as John, but a new interval scale must be developed for
individuals within the group. Within the group there is no such phenomenon as stealing, as
everything is shared, including food. However, outgroup members are essentially treated as
foreigners or barbarians and even non-humans. This form is found in small and economically
underdeveloped villages throughout the world.
The second elementary form, Authority Ranking (AR), is based on ordinal data
the Western handshake, which only connotes a greeting signifying equality on the part of those
engaging in it. In an AR culture ethics is based on status rather than need, and those at the higher
rank receive proportionately more of the goods and rewards, even though they are expected to
fulfill more responsibilities than those lower in status and power.
Horizontal individualism is characteristic of the third elementary form, Equality
will make an equitable or equal contribution to the group, although the timing is not specified.
The Scandinavian nations have constructed a social and cultural system in which Equality
Matching is practiced, as they have very high but regressive tax rates and, at the same time, the
highest charitable contributions on a per capita basis of all developed nations.
Finally, there is Market Pricing (MP) which emphasizes a true zero point, money.
person’s worth is assessed vis-a-vis that of others, and this worth can change dramatically over
time.
Fiske provides some insightful examples of the manner in which these four elementary forms are
played out in actual decisions. He asks the reader to consider the purchase of an expensive fire
truck by a small town of 10,000. At this point the instructor should ask:
* Under CS, everyone’s home is protected, even if they did not help to pay for the new
truck.
* Under AR, everyone is protected, but the more important people receive additional
protection. For example, the fire truck goes by their homes four times more frequently.
* Under EQ, everyone is protected, since it is assumed that everyone is contributing
enhances our understanding. The instructor can probe by asking the following questions:
* How effective would “pay for performance” be in each of these four cultural systems?
* When a nation such as Indonesia is ruled by one person for decades, what cultural form
of human relations is being used?
* How can this framework be used to analyze organizational and cultural change?
local nightspot. Your first negotiating session is scheduled for the next morning.
At the end of the evening, as people are preparing to leave, two of the men exit briefly
and return with a beautiful young woman. They tell you that she is a gift from them to show
their appreciation of you. You are a happily married man with several children at home. What
do you do? You do not want to offend them, but you have grave ethical concerns with this
and just want to be alone.
EXERCISE 7.7: PREPARING FOR AN INTERNATIONAL ASSIGNMENT
The instructor can point out that international assignments of both short and long duration
are very common. Use think-pair-share and ask how class members would prepare for an
international assignment that will last at least one year.
• Gain an expectation of the housing
• Gain at least a basic knowledge of the language
• Talk to native and non-native residents
• Visit tourist agencies
• Learn “Do’s and Don’ts” from travel books
• Identify and join social groups
• Observe where people congregate
• Follow the dress code – Don’t stand out too much
• Invite people to lunch
• Don’t reject invitations
• Try to form deeper relationships
• Listen to local radio and television
• Avoid tourist spots
• Study art and architecture
• be patient
job doing menial labor but became disenchanted with the work and living conditions. She then
returned home to start her own business, before once again traveling to the coast region on a
second attempt.
Hong came to realize that a better financial life is available in the more industrial coastal
towns, but there are drawbacks. For her, such drawbacks included the promise of promotion if
she agreed to become the boss’ girlfriend. It seemed that everything was a tradeoff including the
biggest decision of whether to trade her ideals for financial freedom.
Quite often, factories require that workers put in twelve or more hours of performing
routine and tedious work. They also may require that a worker live in factory dorms, which have
many restrictions as well as poor conditions. All told, while she was happy to be away from
home and on her own, it was a very strict environment and no one looked out for her.
Hong eventually tired of the conditions, and once again left her factory job and returned
home. With her savings and new skills in business, she opened a restaurant that has been quite
successful. But being back home meant she had to respect parents in all matters, including
breaking up with a boyfriend who did not gain their approval.