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CHAPTER 5: CULTURES AS PROCESSES, OUTCOMES, AND
EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION
Edward Hall (Hall and Hall, 1989) is a prominent cultural anthropolist whose work on
monochronic and polychronic time is highlighted in Chapter 2. His theoretical framework also
outcome-oriented cultures, for example, the emphasis on religion in both situations. But
outcome-focused individuals tend to deemphasize processes preceding a discussion of mutual
outcomes.
Using these concepts, Gannon has proposed a four-fold typology of national cultures. The two
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Figure 5.1
OPEN EXPRESSION OF EMOTIONS AND FEELINGS
Lower Higher
China, Japan
and India
Mexico, Spain
and Italy
Lower
DEGREE TO WHICH
PROCESS MUST BE
EMPHASIZED BEFORE
OUTCOMES CAN BE
Higher
England, Ireland
and Scotland
United States
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EXERCISE 5.1: SEEING PROCESSES, OUTCOMES AND
EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION IN ACTION
Chapter 8 describes films and cross-cultural videos that an instructor can employ.
I have found that a few videos are extremely effective in highlighting the concept of
Going International, Part 2 contains a sequence in which an American interacts with a
Saudi ruler. The American wants to achieve an outcome and is oblious to processes,
even to the extent that he commits serious cultural blunders such as handing papers with
his left hand, asking about the ruler’s wife, etc. Typically trainees can identify these “dos
and taboos,” but they need to look closely for processes. For instance, the ruler behaves
discussing the segment, the instructor should show the evaluation by experts, as the
Mexican gets the last laugh, literally speaking.
A newer video similar to the above is Work Today. Like its predecessor, it
includes several short interactions that can be interpreted using Hofstede, Hall, cultural
metaphors, and the four-fold typology.
Both interviewers and interviewees are females in all instances, but their cultural
backgrounds are: Anglo American, Chinese American, and Korean American. Some
differences are obvious, for example, the Chinese American and Korean American keep
emphasizing facts but not conclusions. For example, when the Anglo interviewer asks the
Anglo interviewee how well she did in meeting her goals, the interviewee responded as
The notes accompanying this video point out an interesting study in which Chinese
managers who speak perfect English listened to an audiotape on which American
managers were making decisions. The Chinese thought that the Americans were crazy.
The American felt the same way when they listened to the Chinese managers making
decisions.
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EXERCISE 5.2: SOUTHERN VERSUS NORTHERN HOSPITALITY
The instructor can point out that Hall’s framework and the four-fold typology of
culture can be applied to many situations, both within one nation and across nations. For
example, Hispanic Americans tend to be more emotionally expressive than Anglo
York City. The fellow was working with IBM and was married. Charlie was just
admitted to Columbia U., where he eventually became a professor. Around nine p.m.
Charlie said, almost without thinking, that he thought it was time for him to go. In Miss.
the host would strongly argue that it was too early, that they had time for another drink or
two, etc. Around midnight the guest would be expected to leave, even though the host
EXERCISE 5.3: THE HONG KONG ORCHESTRA
The instructor should read aloud the following case study and stop periodically to
ask specific questions, which are in parentheses.
It seemed like such a small problem. Ed, a 24-year-old American who had
recently joined the Hong Kong Orchestra as second violin, worked well with Tad, a 35-
began to decline. Ed expressed his annoyance to Tad in rather mild terms, at least from
an American perspective. Tad simply did not respond in any way, and that included even
responding directly to Ed’s statements. (INSTRUCTOR SHOULD ASK: WHAT
SHOULD ED DO?) Finally, Ed showed his annoyance at one rehearsal when the violin
section was doing poorly, telling Tad – in a sufficiently loud manner so that a few other
Visibly upset, Ed approached William, the manager of the orchestra, and asked
that he, William, and Tad get together to “iron things our directly.” However, William
was experienced at cross cultural interactions and knew that Tad had suffered a loss of
face, which is the unwritten set of rules that individuals and group use to ensure
individual dignity and group harmony. William did set up a meeting. (WHO DO YOU
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THINK WILLIAM INVITED TO THIS MEETING?) The meeting included Min, a
translator of Tagalog (a major Filipino dialect), even though Tad spoke English fluently;
Ed; Tad; John, the orchestra’s conductor; and William himself. William wanted to solve
this problem but, at the same time, make everyone feel satisfied and ensure that face was
your answer to these questions, what do you think happened after this meeting occurred?
William sat behind his desk, with Tad to his extreme left, then Min, then John,
and then Ed at the extreme right. William controlled the communication process by
talking first to Min, who translated into Tagalog for Tad; then to Ed; then to John; etc.
Everyone communicated only with and through William. At the end of the meeting Tad
will make a major cross-cultural mistake and no one will tell him. At least Ed could
change his future behavior.
This case study is an excellent illustration of problems that can occur between
low-context and high-context individuals and cultures. (This case is adapted from
Gannon and Associates, 1994.)
business people and hurting his reputation in a close-knit community.
Joe was the product of a cross-cultural marriage between a white, Anglo-Saxon
American man and a woman raised in India. In talking the situation over with his
parents, Joe indicated that Ed had wronged him unjustly. His mother said: “Let sleeping
dogs lie. He has not really hurt you too much professionally, and he is really doing
In training large numbers of students and managers, I have found that a very large
number of them want to learn more about how religion relates to culture. In Gannon and
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Associates (1994, 2001), I deliberately tried to relate cultural metaphors to religions. See
the discussion of Islam in “The Turkish Coffeehouse,” Buddhism in “The Japanese
Garden,” Confucianism and Taoism in “The Chinese Family Altar,” and Hinduism in
* Practice moderation in all things, including emotional
expression.
* There Are Two General Types Of Buddhism: Big Raft (meditation & helping
others) & Little Raft (primarily meditation or inward-focused).
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Figure 5.3: CONFUCIANISM
BACKGROUND:
* A reaction to the turmoil in 6th Century China.
See “The Chinese Family Altar,” in Martin J. Gannon and Associates, Understanding
Global Cultures (Sage Publications, 1994, revised ed., 2001).
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Figure 5.4: HINDUISM
KEY CONCEPTS:
* An emphasis on the cyclicality of existence and numerous gods.
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Figure 5.5: ISLAM
THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM:
* There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet.