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CHAPTER 4: CULTURAL METAPHORS
The work of Kluckholn and Strodtbeck, Hall, Hofstede and many others who study
national cross-cultural differences has been invaluable in the area of cross-cultural studies. Their
dimensions of culture constitute a base upon which a majority of more recent studies have been
built. However, as discussed in Chapter 3, their work in some regards is incomplete. For
differences would be risky. It seems feasible to supplement the dimensional studies with another
approach. Along these lines, Gannon and his colleagues have argued that the dimensional
approach should be supplemented by a more content-rich or grounded approach, that of cultural
metaphors (see Gannon and Audia, 2000). A cultural metaphor is some unique or distinctive
institution, phenomenon or activity expressive of a nation’s values, such as the Chinese family
United States. (See Figures 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3.) In order to validate each metaphor, researchers
posed two overarching research questions. First, did the respondents from a particular country
identify with the items whose underlying factors were similar to those of the metaphors from
which they were generated? Second, could subjects distinguish between items describing their
culture from those describing another culture?
Taiwan. Two nations were compared in each instance: The United States and India; England
and Taiwan; and Germany and Italy. Thus there were three different questionnaires.
The results of this study were generally supportive of the metaphorical approach to
describing culture. Metaphors should, however, be used with caution. Metaphors do not pertain
to every individual or even every sub-group within a society. Rather, they highlight national
EXERCISE 4.1: QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS
The instructor should review the information presented above with the class. Then the
instructor should break the class into six groups. If the class is large, it can be divided into any
number of groups that is a multiple of six. Groups should work outside of class if possible.
Figure 4.1: Questionnaire Items: U.S. and India
Cultural Metaphor for the U.S.: American Football
Cultural Metaphor for India: The Dance of Shiva
Please indicate, by filling in any single number in between 0 and 10, the degree to which you
____ Personal success or failure is attributed to the efforts of the individual.
____ Attention is given to the nuclear, rather than the extended family.
____ Competition is protected and enhanced.
____ Political authority is subject to checks and balances.
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____ Efforts are focused primarily on short term issues.
____ Life consists of four stages – student, householder, retiree and a person who has
renounced the world.
____ All acts or deeds have consequences, and it is the sum total of positive and negative
____ The individual is capable of anything he or she wants to accomplish.
____ Time is limited, so things should be done quickly.
____ Winning, fame, and glory are important.
____ This country is superior to most, if not all, other nations.
____ The nation’s freedom should be preserved and protected above all other considerations.
____ We celebrate our national feeling voluntarily by displaying flags in many places and by
joining in singing the national anthem on many occasions.
____ Family and kinship networks define one’s life and perspective.
Figure 4.2: Cross-cultural Questionnaire Items:
England and Taiwan
Cultural Metaphor for England: The Traditional British Home
Cultural Metaphor for Taiwan: The Chinese Family Altar
____ would agree that it is important to have sons to carry on the family name and carry out
family responsibilities.
____ would agree that having primarily or only family members in a family business,
especially in positions of authority, is the preferred way of organizing a business.
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____ would agree that time is circular; that is, the past, present and future are bound within one
another.
____ are taught from an early age to control spontaneity and to follow detailed manners.
____ are taught from an early age to know their place in society.
kinship group obligations are carried out.
____ would agree that achieving material progress in life is important because it ensures the
respect of your children and ancestors.
____ would agree that material success is a way of honoring your ancestors.
Figure 4.3: Cross-cultural Questionnaire Items:
Germany and Italy
Cultural Metaphor for Germany: The Symphony
Cultural Metaphor for Italy: The Opera
____ pay great attention to surface appearances; they do not dig too deeply into things.
____ prefer leaders who approach problems without emotions.
____ prefer to work in departments that are relatively autonomous in decision making
authority.
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____ agree that leaders, when heading departments, possess unquestioned authority on most
issues.
____ reach decisions through consensus when dealing with other departments.
____ love colorful rituals and spectacles.
____ trust family members more than anyone else to give them true information and to protect
them against troubles.
Through these activities students can gain an appreciation of the manner in which culture
can be studied, cultural metaphors can be created, and the methods by which such concepts can
4.3. In one paragraph the cultural metaphor is not mentioned. In the other paragraph the cultural
metaphor is explicitly mentioned.
Figure 4.4: Paragraph Profiles, U.S. and India
Please indicate, by filling in any single number in between 0 and 10, the degree to which you
agree with each statement or description. Use 0 for do not agree at all and 10 for totally agree or
any number in between.
____Most people in my culture would agree that this nation’s culture revolves around religion
relationships within the group based on age and gender. Between kinship groups, there is a
clearly demarcated hierarchy that subsumes other bases for differentiating people, such as race,
language, and geographical origin.
____Most people in my country would agree that there is intense competition, constant
geographic movement, and continual striving to improve one’s position in life in this culture.
it. As a result, people are mobile, energetic, and motivated to achieve specific goals. People
generally pursue their own personal interests but will cooperate with each other to achieve
specific goals. Personal success or failure is generally attributed to the efforts of the individual
and there is celebration of winners.
____Most people in my country would view life as a celestial dance. The dance represents the
____The value of my culture could be compared to a competitive game, in which there is intense
competition, speed, constant movement, and a sense of limited time. Individuals have highly
specialized roles, and team members cooperate to achieve specific short-term goals. Anyone can
play on the team based on their ability and performance rather than based on their personal
background. There is a clear delineation between winners and losers; winning is often
Figure 4.5: Paragraph Profiles: England and Taiwan
Please indicate, by filling in any single number in between 0 and 10, the degree to which you
agree with each statement or description. Use 0 for do not agree at all and 10 for totally agree or
any number in between.
frowned upon, psychological distance between individuals is prized, and patience is held in high
honor. Playing fair is stressed; encouraging the underdog rather than favorites is viewed
positively; and shunning abstract theory in favor of previously-used practical solutions is
favored. This nation’s culture also emphasizes modesty; wry humor; communication that is
Figure 4.6: Paragraph Profiles: Germany and Italy
Please indicate, by filling in any single number in between 0 and 10, the degree to which you
agree with each statement or description. Use 0 for do not agree at all and 10 for totally agree or
any number in between.
musicians, styles, and perspectives; it produces a unified sound. The conductor brings the
diverse instruments into concert or combined effort just as the manager of administrator does.
____Most people in this country tend to view opera as a suitable cultural metaphor because of its
emphasis on spectacle, pageantry, the lyrical use of language and the inevitable expression of
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EXERCISE 4.3: ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Pearce and Osmond (1996) in their article, Metaphors for Change: The ALP (Access
Leverage Points) Model of Change Management, endorse the use of cultural metaphors to assist
4.7 below shows an example of their work taken from the Gannon and Associates (1994)
metaphor for England (The Traditional British House). The second step is to
Identify Access Leverage Points within the metaphor framework. The last step is to develop
intervention strategies (2 to 5) to deal with each ALP.
Using the Pierce-Osmond method, have groups of students develop a similar table for a
metaphors described in this book through the creation of pairs, triads, and other small-group
combinations.
Each student in a pair should read half of the book. He or she is responsible for
explaining each of his assigned chapters orally to the other group member or members. The
student should be sure to outline the metaphor, the dimensions, and where the nation ranks in the
Dr. Joyce Oslund and Dr. Maggie Phillips developed this exercise for the Biannual
International Meeting of the Western Academy of Management, Isthanbul, Turkey 1998. While
it was used to understand Turkish culture, cultural sensemaking can be applied to any culture.
At the first meeting, the instructor provides background reading, for example, the Turkish
coffeehouse (Gannon and Associates, 2001). Teams of four or five people are formed.
After the team has agreed upon the topics to be studied, its members develop
interview items that they will use in interviewing two or three natives. Then team members
complete the interviews. This approach guarantees a small but rich data base.