If evidence supports a claim, why do we need warrants?
Warrants are what connect the claim with the evidence (or data in some cases). Warrants allow
Why avoid any of the fallacies of reasoning if using them can lead to the audience’s
acceptance of your claim?
The problem with relying on fallacies is that they involve using false or erroneous statements, in
The following questions may help you illustrate important points in the chapter and facilitate
students’ learning of this material. These questions can be used as:
Think of an example in which you observed a speaker utilizing a fallacy in reasoning. Did
you notice it right away, or were you
persuaded by his or her claims? If you
did
not notice
it right away, how did you feel about the speaker’s message after you discovered the
fallacy?
This question is helpful in fostering dialogue about the ethical implications of using fallacies in
III. ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES
QUESTIONS
homework questions
quizzes
in-class work (individually or in groups)
topics to generate discussion
question-and-answer sessions between instructor and students
What is an argument and
what are the three core elements of an argument? Give an
example of an argument that you have recently heard in the media. Give an example of an
argument your parents used to give you (and perhaps still do).
Argument:
A stated position, with support, for or
against an idea or issue. An argument consists
of a claim, evidence, and warrants.
Identify and define the three types of claims and give an example of each.
Claims of fact
focus on whether something is or is not true or whether something will or will
Identify the two types of evidence and give an example of each.
You can determine the strength of the evidence by using three tests. Explain these.
Begging the question:
An argument stated in such a way that it cannot help but be true, even
though no evidence has been presented
The relevancy of the evidence to the topic at hand.
The timeliness of the evidence: is the evidence recent or updated?
Identify the five types of warrants and give an example of each.
Motivational warrants use the needs, desires, emotions, and values of audience members as
What is a fallacy? Identify 11 types of
fallacies.
Fallacy:
A false or erroneous statement, or an invalid or deceptive line of reasoning
1.
4.
Either-or fallacy:
Posing an argument in terms of two alternatives only, even though there
may be other alternatives
ACTIVITIES
Inoculation Effect (I.E.)
Purpose: Learning I.E. (inoculation effect) through i.e.’s (examples)—to identify
counterarguments in order to be able to address them and therefore “inoculate” listeners against
accepting these claims.
Instructions: Create a list of possible persuasive speech topics that you may have generated in
class or taken from a book, and pick eight to ten topics. Write these topics on the board, and
instruct students to write them in their notebooks. Have students come up with at least one
counterargument for each topic. Then ask for volunteers to write their
arguments on the board
under the topic (three to five for each topic).
Discussion: As a class, discuss each of the counterarguments and what their possible effects
would be. Use the following questions to help guide the discussion: Do the students think they
will work to inoculate the listener? Are there other counterarguments that should be addressed?
When is it necessary, and when is it not necessary, to provide counterarguments in your speech?
Fact, Fiction, or
Fallacy?
Purpose: To become familiar with different types of fallacies and practice identifying them.
Instructions: During
class, have students provide personal examples of the following types of
fallacies: begging the question, bandwagoning, either-or fallacy, ad hominem, and red herring.
Then divide students into small groups of three to five people. Outside
class, have each group
find at least one example of each of these types of fallacies, along
with one or two facts and one
or two fictions. Have
each group make up a quiz using these
examples. The quiz can be written
or given orally by the group members. (This usually
depends on what the
examples are.) During
the next class period, have each group give its quiz to the class. The rest of the class will have to
identify whether the example is fact, fiction, or fallacy
and, if it is a fallacy, which type.
A Presentation of Claims, Evidence, and Warrants*
Purpose: To become knowledgeable about the different types of claims, evidence, and warrants.
Instructions: Divide students into groups of three, and either assign them a persuasive topic or
have them pick one. No group should have the same topic. Each member of the group will then
“be”
claims, evidence, or warrants. Give students the list below. Have them find an example of
each of type of claim, evidence, and warrant. This may take a few days, so you may want to give
this assignment at the beginning of the chapter
and have it due toward the
end. Students in each
group will use their examples to give a presentation on their topic. Depending on the type
and
amount of information, groups may be able to put together more than one persuasive argument—
that is, they
may be
able to advocate both sides of an issue.
Claims
claim of fact/speculative claim
claim of value
claim of policy
Evidence
speaker’s own knowledge and opinions, or expertise
secondary sources (external evidence)
Warrants
motivational warrant
authoritative warrant
substantive warrant
warrant by cause
warrant by analogy
Additional instructions: If time allows, after each group gives its presentation, you could give
impromptu persuasive presentations by mixing and matching
claims, evidence, and warrants
from different groups. This presentation could be just one to two minutes long and cover only
one aspect of one topic.
*This activity can be separated for only claims, only evidence, or only warrants, or used with all
three.
Practice Debating
Purpose: To provide students with the opportunity
to practice basic argumentation.
Instructions: For this activity, students should pick a partner. Each team of two should be given
a notecard with two comparable objects, events, or issues. With minimal preparation time, each
student picks one of the two and argues convincingly why it is somehow better than the other.
Each speaker has one minute to present his or her case. The following a
re some sample
comparisons to use:
rap vs. rock and roll
rural vs. city life
giving a gift vs. receiving a gift
hot weather vs. cold weather
telephone vs. texting
dieting vs. eating whatever you want
basketball vs. football
going to a movie vs. watching a movie at home
cake vs. pie
living in the dorms vs. living off campus
premarital sex vs. waiting until you get married
dogs vs. cats
nonfiction vs. fiction
Identifying Ad Hominem Attacks (also for online courses)
Purpose: To help students distinguish between speech that follows the rules of engagement and
speech that targets a person with the intention to discredit, demean, or belittle (ad hominem
attacks); to increase student interest in public discourse.
Instructions: Have students locate examples of ad hominem attacks in speeches or statements
made by people in the public eye. Encourage them to research political or civic issues that are
considered controversial and are of interest to them. This can be done outside of class so that
students are prepared to discuss the attacks in class. Place students in small groups and have
them discuss their examples with one another. They
should answer the following questions
together.
Does this speech contribute to positive public discourse? Why or why not?
How might this speaker have altered the content of his or her statements to
reflect the advancement of positive goals?
How would you have
approached this topic or issue as an ethical public
speaker?
Discussion: This activity will encourage
your students to think about how they
frame their
arguments in speech that addresses civic issues. Ask students to express their opinions on each
issue without attacking
any person or
group. Students will likely
find that this is more difficult
than they might have assumed. This fact will facilitate a dialogue about the importance of
carefully
crafting messages that are
considered controversial. Additionally, students will have the
opportunity to voice their opinions about matters that are important to them, thus encouraging
civic engagement.
Name the Claim
Purpose: To give students practice in identifying
claims and warrants in their speeches.
Instructions: Consider an upcoming speech assignment for your class. State one or more
claims
that are the basis for the speech. Identify the type of claim each one is. State some body of
evidence
you have
access to that will support your claim. Provide a warrant for each piece of
evidence that ties it to the claim. Are these warrants implicit, or will
you need to state them
outright when you deliver the speech?
Why?
This activity can be incorporated into students’ overall preparation for an upcoming
speech assignment. Point out that the chosen topic may influence such decisions as types of
claims (value, fact, or policy) made and order of evidence chosen, as well as the warrant
(motivational, authoritative, substantive, causal, or analogy) used to connect the evidence with
the overall claim. Also, stating a warrant outright or implying it will depend on whether the
claim is easily refutable or whether the audience is able to link the evidence with the claim on its
own (this, of course, requires some audience analysis). You might have students complete this
activity in writing, so that you will have time to evaluate their claims and evidence before they
speak in front of the
class. This revision process will also help students alleviate some anxiety
about their speech content.
IV. GROUP ACTIVITIES
Building an Argument
Purpose: To walk students through the process of building an argument, from claim to evidence,
to warrant.
Instructions:
Do the following exercise in a group of six classmates. Select a topic of mutual
interest. Two people in your group will work together to state a claim. They
will then present the
claim to the rest of the group. Two other members of the group will work together to formulate
some evidence in support of the claim, and then present the evidence to the
rest of the group. The
remaining two people in the group will develop a warrant that substantiates the evidence, and
then present the warrant to the other four members. Once the claim, evidence, and warrant have
been determined for the group, develop them further until
you are satisfied that a reasonably
strong argument has been built. Then present the
argument to the class.
This activity is especially useful if students are
given a
group presentation assignment.
The exercise also gives students an opportunity to provide their peers with feedback on the
effectiveness of claims, warrants, or evidence
generated. Things to consider when assessing
claims are whether they
clearly reflect claims of fact, value, or policy. Evidence should be
assessed on the basis of its relevance, timeliness, and credibility. Finally, students should be able
to distinguish the different types of warrants and be able to show how the warrant links the
evidence
with the claim.
Test Your Group’s Arguments
Purpose: To challenge members of other groups to test the arguments of other groups.
Instructions: Ask another group in class to test your argument for fallacious reasoning. Once
any kind of fallacy has been pointed out, discuss with your group how you can strengthen the
argument to overcome the fallacy. Present your refined argument to the class.
As in the previous activity, look for possible underlying causes for the fallacies
committed. The group testing the argument could suggest ways to curtail some of the common
underlying causes. When the group identifies the fallacies, members should be able to pinpoint
which type of fallacy the argument contains based on the definition of that particular fallacy.