978-1457601927 Chapter 6

CHAPTER 6

Critical Approaches to Organizations and Communication

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Chapter 6 provides students with a much more thorough and in–depth look at the critical approaches to organi–

zational communication. Beginning with the initial rise of this perspective in the United States, it discusses the

work of several theorists. The emphasis of challenging the unfair exercise and abuse of power within organiza–

tions is shown through repeated examples of critical theories and concepts. The chapter defines various types of

power and discusses the abuse of hidden powers such as ideology, hegemony, myths and metaphors, and manu–

factured consent. New directions in organizational communication, including the need for healthy organizations

as well as practices of resistance, are discussed in detail. This chapter also discusses the role of technology in

organizational communication, including the controversial topics of surveillance and cybervetting. Finally, the

chapter concludes by illustrating the role of a critical researcher as a critical mode of being.

TEACHING GOALS

• Discuss the importance of power within the critical approaches to organizational communication.

• Describe the practical and intellectual factors that popularized critical theory within the United States.

• Define the five types of social power proposed by French and Raven.

• Define ideology and hegemony.

• Discuss examples of hidden powers.

• Examine the relationship between discourse and discipline in the relationships of power.

• Explain what it means to organize healthy organizations.

• Discuss practices of resistance from large social movements to individuals’ actions.

• Illustrate the critical modes of being associated with being a critical scholar.

• Identify the limitations of the critical approach.

TEACHING CHALLENGES

This chapter is complex. Critical theory involves many concepts and assumptions, as well as difficult vocabulary.

Students will need detailed instruction for a comprehensive look at critical approaches. Concepts such as ideology

and hegemony are abstract and unclear. Students need practical and personal examples for critical theory to make

an impact. Critical theory might seem revolutionary or ideological to students because it challenges the assumptions

of previous frameworks.

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Studying organizations through critical approaches raises questions. Critical theory makes us think about com–

munication, power, and relationships overlooked by other perspectives. Students who recognize and

acknowledge these problems will lead in a better workplace tomorrow.

CLASSROOM EXERCISES AND ASSIGNMENTS

Exercise 1

Stanley Deetz and several other critical and postmodern theorists assert that organizations are engaging in the

“corporate colonization of the life–world.” This means that corporate interests frame all aspects of daily life. In

today’s world, organizations are central to the culture. Corporate influences and decisions change society.

National, local, and outside forces affect organizational culture. This exercise will help students understand the

impact of corporate influence.

Begin by reading to the class the scenario of organizational change provided in Appendix B. Then, separate the

class into twelve pairs or small groups. Give each group a preprinted slip of paper with:

•

The situation.

•

The main question.

•

One of the role descriptions from the master list in Appendix B.

Give the groups five minutes to discuss the main question from the perspective of their role. Reunite the class and

spend a few minutes discussing each participant’s response. Ask students how the responses made them feel about

the corporate culture and environment. What kind of questions do these questions raise about corporate and

institutional power over societal culture? How did the responses of some of the other roles make them feel? The

goal of this exercise is to emphasize cultural interplay between organizations.

Exercise 2

This exercise illustrates the transition from French and Raven’s five types of power to more discursive articula

tions

of power relationships. Assemble several pictures of individuals deemed to have some sort of power in

society.

You might include pictures of a state governor, a university or college president, a police officer, a celebrity, and

even a picture of yourself. Have students discuss what types of power this individual “has.” Then, facilitate a

discussion about how these individuals “have” power only in relation to other individuals and organizations such as

an electorate, a board of regents, popular culture, and so on. Return to the pictures and ask stu

dents to consider who

gives each of these individuals power.

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Exercise 3

Ask students to write a resistance narrative. This activity is the perfect accompaniment to the movie clip from

Office Space referenced in the Classroom Media Resources for this chapter. After students view the suggested

clip, ask them to write for fifteen to twenty minutes about a way in which they have resisted dominant

organizational ideologies. If students cannot think of an instance in which they have resisted, ask them to write

about the reasons why they do not or cannot engage in practices of resistance.

Exercise 4

The “Racing through the Hurricane of Airport Security: Organizational Metaphors and Standing in Line” case

study at the end of Chapter 6 offers a useful illustration of organizational metaphors in everyday practice. Ask

students to read through the case study in small groups or pairs. In addition to the discussion questions posed in the

text, ask students to think about other metaphors for travel that they use as well as how those metaphors are

linked

to organizational communication practices.

Exercise 5

This exercise is geared at making students aware of some of the ideological assumptions regarding gender that

they themselves might be carrying into the workforce. Before class begins, write a list of actions or situations on

the board and place the words “male/female” next to each statement. As a class, read the statements aloud and

ask how many people think that it describes a female employee and how many think it describes a male em–

ployee. Responses should reflect what immediately comes to mind, not what they ponder over. After you have

read the list, discuss what kinds of assumptions the board represents. Sample statements include:

•

Brought a birthday cake to work for a coworker.

•

Has a job that requires traveling four days a week.

•

Was late to work because of a flat tire.

•

Has to leave early because a child is sick.

•

Is head of the manufacturing and operations department.

•

Is the cashier at the company cafeteria.

•

Is vice president of the human resources department.

•

Just asked for his or her office to be repainted and new furniture ordered.

•

Is conducting a meeting regarding the new stock option plan.

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Exercise 6

Have students read the What Would You Do? box titled “The (Im)possibilities of a Living Wage.” The box ex–

amines the ethical issues and obligations faced by Walmart and Costco as they pay for people’s labor. Ask your

students to think about the things that are keeping organizations from paying their labor a living wage and offer –

ing more benefits to their employees. Discuss the changes in the way Walmart is now paying employees.

Exercise 7

Have students read the What Would You Do? box titled “Unintentional Surveillance?” Ask your students to

work through the discussion questions in small groups of four. After they have worked through the questions,

ask

students to brainstorm some ways in which they would handle Allyson’s situation. Should students generate

solutions that sound like policy-based initiatives, ask students to consider who should write the policies and

how programs might be implemented.

Taking exercises online:

Many of these suggested exercises can be made digital for those teaching hybrid or

online classes. Simply conduct discussions on your online forum, discussion boards, or course management

systems. In particular, Exercises 4, 6, and 7 lend themselves to this conversion.

CLASSROOM MEDIA RESOURCES

Changing Education Paradigms (2010, 11:40 minutes, Not Rated) (https://youtu.be/zDZFcDGpL4U). This an–

imated video from the RSA Animate series summarizes Ken Robinson’s popular message on creativity and ed –

ucation.

The First Amendment Project: Fox vs. Franken (2004, Not Rated). This short–film collection addresses the role

that communication plays in relation to the freedoms guaranteed in the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitu –

tion. The first film of the collection focuses on issues of corporate branding, domination and control, and re–

sistance as it documents the lawsuit that Fox News filed against Al Franken for using the phrase “fair and

balanced.”

Food Stamped (2010, 60 minutes, Not Rated). If you did not have a chance to show this documentary as par t of

Chapter 1 or Chapter 2, the concepts in Chapter 6 provide another nice opportunity to show this film. The doc –

umentary follows a nutritionist and her filmmaker husband as they attempt to live on a food stamp budget. The

film problematizes the idea of living wages and poverty in America as evident in programs such as the Food

Stamp program.

House of Cards: (2013, Season 1, Episode 4, Rated TV-MA. This Netflix series has many profiles of leader–

ship. Analyze the leadership and power in this episode or any episode. Explain what kind of power Frank Un–

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derwood and other characters possess. The types of power to consider are legitimate, informational, expert, co –

ercive, reward, and referent.

Inside Job (2010, 105 minutes, Rated PG-13). This documentary, narrated by Matt Damon, takes a closer look

at the financial crisis of 2008. The film opens up a conversation about concepts such as progressive capitalism,

ideology, and hegemony. Students can also address concepts such as labor standards, power, resistance, and

dissent.

Office Space (1999, 99 minutes, Rated R). While not a huge box office success, this comedy film satirizing

work life in a software company has become recognized as a cult classic. See if you can spot the examples of

resistance.

Scrubs: “My Fruit Cups” (2002, Season 2, Episode 8, 22 minutes, Rated TV-PG). This episode takes a comedic

look at the relationship between dominant and resistant discourses. To supplement their incomes, two of the interns

start moonlighting at a free clinic and stealing fruit cups for sustenance. Meanwhile, another intern faces pressure to

choose a specialty considered more suitable for a woman.

30 Days: Minimum Wage (2005, Season 1, Episode 1, 45 minutes, Rated TV-MA). Documentarian Morgan

Spurlock and his fiancée spend 30 days attempting to live on minimum wage. This episode chronicles the

difficulties that they face with regard to securing work with any sort of benefits as well as keeping themselves

healthy and happy. This video works nicely to demonstrate issues related to Marxism and the concepts of

resistance to domination and critical modes of being.

The Walking Dead: Season 5 Finale (2015, Season 5, Episode 16, 3:24 minutes, Not Rated)

(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hLo4BnTLhb0 ). Explain what kind of power Rick holds over the commu–

nity (organization) in this clip from the season finale. Why does he use this power at this time and at this place? Did

he always use his power in this way?

Wal-Mart: The High Cost of Low Price (2005, 120 minutes, Not Rated). This critical documentary examines the

business practices of the corporate giant that has come to symbolize big business in America. This documentary

is a great way to initiate a discussion about the relationship between people and profits. In 2016, Walmart made

changes to employee pay and benefits. Research and discover the changes in hourly wage. See this news item:

<http://news.walmart.com/news–archive/2016/01/20/more–than–one–million-walmart-associates-receive-pay–

increase–in-2016>

ONLINE RESOURCES

Bentham’s Panopticon (http://www.tformaro.com/thesis/panpic.html). This site offers an illustration of Jeremy

Bentham’s panopticon as well as definitions and critical insights about its use as a control device. Have your

students look at the structure and comment on how it might be metaphorically applied to organizations. Though

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Bentham’s prison was never actually built, we are all watched in other, more subtle ways. Ask your students to

draw or describe some modern-day versions of panopticons.

Big Five Personality Traits Reflected in Job Applicants’ Social Media Postings

(http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/cyber.2012.0163?journalCode=cyber).This article, written by J.

W.Stoughton, Lori F. Thompson, and Adam W. Meade, was originally published in Cyberpsychology, Behavior,

and Social Networking, 2013, volume 16, issue 11.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (http://www.osha.gov). The federal website for OSHA offers re–

sources and standards for creating healthy organizations. Have your students examine this site for information

about the need for healthy organizations, workers’ compensation programs, and general policies that guide health

and safety promotion.

Power, Influence, and Persuasion in Organizations (http://managementhelp.org/leadingpeople/

influencing-others.htm). This website offers some additional commentary on power in organizations, and sup-

ports the position that power is not necessarily a bad thing. Have your students use the concepts and communi –

cation theories discussed in this chapter to evaluate and critique the commentary on power made in the

statements on this site. Then, ask students to evaluate the site’s source material itself. Direct students to

<http://managementhelp.org/aboutfml/what–it-is.htm> to learn more about the organization that posts this in–

formation. How is power implicated in the way that information is posted and presented on the Internet?

Raise the Minimum Wage Blog (http://www.raisetheminimumwage.com/blog/). This is a project of the National

Employment Law Project, which works with states and Congress to increase the wage floor and help low –wage

workers in the United States.

Sir Ken Robinson (http://sirkenrobinson.com/). This website is packed with transformational information for

educational organizations.

Social Responsibility in Organizations (http://study.com/academy/lesson/social-responsibility–in–

organizations.html). This website offers an interesting take on the ideas and concepts presented in critical ap –

proaches. The site contains a lesson and video that explore the need for social responsibility in corporations and

for–profit organizations, especially as it concerns organizations purportedly “going green.” Ask your students to

consider how the ideas of social responsibility and going green are ideologies in and of themselves. Also,

encourage your students to consider the limits of discourses such as social responsibility within corporations.

What might keep modern corporations from prioritizing socially responsible practices?

Stan Deetz on Critical Theory of Communication in Organizations (https://youtu.be/n4R–Q9wCRIo). Deetz is

interviewed and explains his critical theory of communication.

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ESSAY/DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

• Discuss the main concerns of critical approaches to organizations. Under what kinds of circumstances

did this theory gain popularity in America?

• What are the five types of social power proposed by French and Raven? How is their approach related

to research on compliance–gaining?

• Define ideology and hegemony.

• Explain the difference between myths, metaphors, and stories. How are they important sources of pow –

er and ideology?

• What is manufactured consent? Why is this concept so powerful?

• What is discourse, and what relationship does it have to power and control?

• Why is there a need for organizing healthy organizations?

• What are some different practices of resistance, and what might they work to accomplish?

• What are some of the limitations of the critical perspective?

• Consider how schools have changed or need to change given that the public school system stems from

the Industrial Revolution. Dissatisfaction with the factory approach to education is creating new ways to

organize. Discuss these changes, which rebel against the traditional model.

• Define and illustrate the term cybervetting.

KEY TERMS

critical organizational theory

progressive capitalism

power

ideology

reification

An approach to organizational communication that examines and

opposes many of the assumptions of other dominant perspectives by

raising important questions about the unfair exercise and abuse of

power within organizations.

A form of capitalism that makes the connection between the wages

paid to employees and their ability to be active consumers.

Deep structures that reside in networks of relationships that are sys–

tematically connected.

A system of ideas that are the basis of theories; it often refers to the

basic, often unexamined, assumptions about how things are or how

they should be.

The process whereby socially constructed meanings come to be per–

ceived and experienced as real, objective, and fixed, such that mem–

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bers “forget” their participation in the construction of those mean–

ings.

hegemony

myth, story, metaphor

manufactured consent

concertive control

discourse

surveillance

panopticon

knowledge management (KM) system

resistance

global transformation

employee dissent

critical mode of being

LECTURE NOTES

Define critical organizational theory.

The term used to describe the hidden power of society, which is an

all-encompassing power that is often so covert that it is not recog–

nized by those who are most controlled by it.

Surface-level forms of communication that contain implicit, hidden,

and taken-for-granted ideological assumptions that reside at a deep

structure level of power.

The process in which employees at all levels willingly adopt and en–

force the legitimate power of the organization, society, or system of

capitalism.

A consensus negotiated by organizational members regarding their

position on core organizational values. Rule violations are often pun–

ished more severely than under more bureaucratic forms.

A site of power and of struggle over competing versions of

knowledge, truth, and the self.

Constant supervision.

A surveillance system designed for an ideal prison in which inmates

never knew when guards in the central core are watching them.

A system, such as a searchable database or interactive expert system,

that catalogues and organizes knowledge and information.

The ways in which organizational members distance and defend

themselves from organizational power.

The ability to effect large–scale collective changes.

Verbal expressions of disagreement with management.

A way of life central to critical theory, including being filled with

caring, thought, and humor.

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Discuss the practical and intellectual reasons for the rise of critical theory in the United States in the

1980s.

Explain the centrality of power within critical theory, and describe the five proposed types of social pow–

er.

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Ask students to reflect on examples of the five types of social power that they have encountered within

their personal lives or their organizational lives. Did they realize that power was being exerted at the

time, or was it only after the fact?

Define

ideology

, and provide some of the characteristics of this concept.

Discuss some sources of the hidden powers of ideological control.

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Define

discourse

and its relationship to discipline. Discuss how power operates in and through discourse.

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Examine recent trends in critical organizational communication scholarship.

Describe the role of the critical theorist. What are its relationships to the cultural approach? How should

research from a critical perspective proceed?

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Review critical approaches with your students. Pay particular attention to the role that power plays in the

construction of organizational practices. Moreover, make sure that students begin to understand the

process of turning critique into politically attentive and globally transformative practices.

PART III

CONTEXTS FOR ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

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