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256
Chapter 12: Gendered Power and Violence
Special Note: The material in this chapter is especially sensitive and potentially polarizing of
women and men in the class. In discussing this chapter, it is extremely important to channel
conversation in productive ways. The exercises that follow the summary of chapter content
offer ways to guide constructive discussion of gendered violence.
I.
The Many Faces of Gendered Violence
A.
Gendered violence includes physical, verbal, emotional, sexual, and visual
brutality that is inflicted disproportionately or exclusively on members of one sex.
B.
Gender Intimidation
1.
Gender intimidation exists when people, because of their sex, gender, or
sexual orientation, are treated in ways that make them feel vulnerable or
unsafe. This is also called street harassment.
a.
A common form is sexualized remarks made in public spaces.
b.
LGBTQ people or people who do not conform to gender norms
also are subject to gender intimidation in the form of humiliating,
disrespecting, or imposing violence.
C.
Sexual Harassment
1.
Sexual harassment is unwelcome verbal or nonverbal behavior of a
sexual nature that links academic or professional standing or success to
sexual favors that interfere with work or learning. Women are the
predominant targets.
2.
Quid Pro Quo
a.
Quid pro quo harassment is the actual or threatened use of
professional or academic rewards or punishment to gain sexual
compliance from a subordinate or student.
b.
This form of harassment depends on power differences. The
person seeking sexual favors must have some kind of power over
the other person.
3.
Hostile Environment
a.
Hostile environment harassment is unwelcome conduct of a
sexual nature that interferes with a person’s ability to perform a
job or to gain an educate. It is also conduct that creates a hostile,
intimidating, or offensive working condition because of sexualized
conduct.
b.
This form of harassment is often between peers.
c.
A hostile environment grows out of a pattern of behavior. A single
action is unlikely to meet the legal standard.
D.
Sexual Assault
1.
Sexual assault is any sexual activity that occurs without the informed
consent of at least one of the persons involved.
2.
One type of sexual assault is rape, which is one or more acts of
nonconsensual oral, anal, or vaginal penetration by a body part or object.
257
a.
For many years, marital rape was not recognized as a crime.
b.
Trans people are particularly vulnerable to assault—one in two are
sexually abused or assaulted in their lifetimes.
c.
For many years, the United States defined rape as carnal knowledge
of a female forcibly and against her will, but this was expanded to
include men.
3.
The definition of sexual assault includes the concept of informed consent.
a.
Informed consent is only given by an adult who is of typical mental
4.
Sexual assault has been a major problem on college campuses.
a.
One reason for the prevalence is the existence of rape culture,
defined as common attitudes, beliefs, and practices that ignore,
excuse, encourage, or normalize sexual violence.
b.
Many people, including college students, believe rape myths, such as
rape is usually perpetrated by someone who is a strange to the
victim. An estimated 90% of rape victims know their assailant.
c.
Claiming that a woman deserved to be raped because of her behavior
or dress is blaming the victim: holding the harmed person
responsible for the harm that another has inflicted.
5.
Fewer studies have focused on perpetrators of sexual assault and rape. One
study found 6% men reported they had raped or had attempted to rape
someone they knew. Of those men, approximately two-thirds were serial
offenders.
6.
Sexual assault is not confined to civilian contexts. It is a serious problem in
the military. The Department of Defense’s surveys reveal that 90% of
female cadets experience forms of sexism, including assault.
7.
In 2008, the United Nations designated rape as a “weapon of war.”
a.
Rape has, throughout history, been used as a means of ethnic
cleansing, humiliation, and intimidation. Frequently, rape in these
contexts goes entirely unpunished and is often inflicted on very
young children.
8.
Forced prostitution, or sexual slavery, has also been inflicted on women and men
throughout the world.
a.
During World War II, Japanese women were forced to act as “comfort
women” for Japanese soldiers, having sex with as many as 30 men a day.
b.
Estimates state that around 1.8 million girls and women are trafficked
into forced prostitution every year.
E.
Intimate Partner Violence
F.
Intimate partner violence includes physical, mental, emotional, verbal, or
economic power used by one partner against the other partner in a romantic
relationship.
1.
Intimate partner violence is experienced and perpetrated by both sexes and by all
sexual orientations.
258
2.
Twenty-five percent of U.S. women have been violently attacked by husbands
or boyfriends. Bisexual women are far more likely to be beaten, stalked, or
sexually assaulted by an intimate partner. At least 30% of women worldwide
have been victims of intimate partner violence.
3.
Control is a key issue for many abusers, who want to control their partners’
appearances, behaviors, relationships, and lives.
4.
Violence between intimates typically follows a cyclical pattern: mounting
tension, explosion and violence, remorse and apology, and honeymoon.
5.
Both women and men can be abusers, but there are general differences in the types
of violence committed by men and women.
i.
Women tend to verbally abuse, slap, or shove partners.
ii.
Men are more likely to use their bodies and weapons to commit
assault.
iii.
Abusive men’s assaults are typically more severe. Men who
engage in domestic violence tend to overestimate how common
such behavior is and/or they underestimate the amount of harm
they inflict.
iv.
Men tend to use violence to enhance self-esteem, win respect,
and exert control.
v.
Women are more likely than men to use relational aggression in
romantic relationships, hurting partners by manipulating social
relationships.
6.
Stalking is a form of intimate partner violence. It is repeated pursuit that is
uninvited and unwanted that makes the target of the pursuit concerned for his or
her safety.
G.
Genital Surgery
1.
Genital surgery is also called genital mutilation and genial cutting. This
practice continues to be practiced in some countries. More than 200 million
women and girls have been cut.
2.
Male circumcision
a.
Male circumcision is the removal of prepuce of the penis. In some
countries, including the United States, circumcision is a common
practice. Recent research reports possible health benefits, yet some
people view it as a form of genital mutilation.
3.
Sunna
a.
Sunna involves removing both the sheath and tip of the clitoris. This
significantly lessens a woman’s sexual pleasure and has greater
potential for medical complications. It is most often performed in
African countries on girls between the ages of 4 and 14.
4.
Excision or Clitoridectomy
a.
A clitoridectomy removes the entire clitoris and parts of the labia minora.
It greatly reduces sexual pleasure for women and is intended to discourage
premarital sex or being unfaithful after marriage. It often has medical
complications and increase pain and danger in childbirth. Clitoridectomies
were performed in the United States and Europe as late as the twentieth
century to “cure” masturbation.
259
5.
Infibulation
a.
Infibulation is the most extreme form of genital surgery and is
usually performed on girls between the ages of 5 and 8. The clitoris
and labia minor are removed, the flesh is scraped from the labia
majora and sewn together, closing the vagina almost completely
(leaving a small opening for urination and menstruation). The opening
is made larger after marriage to permit intercourse, but may be
ordered by her husband to be resewn (e.g., to prevent pregnancy or if
he leaves town). This makes sexual activity extremely painful for
women and often increases men’s pleasure.
6.
Genital surgery is usually performed by people with little or no medical
training who operation in unsanitary conditions without anesthesia.
7.
Genital surgery is rooted in cultural traditions, which can only change when
members of the culture resist them, such as Chinese citizens fighting against
the practice of foot binding.
H.
Gender-Based Murder
1.
When both sexes are given proper care, females will generally outnumber
males. However, in many countries today, men outnumber women. The reason
for this is gender-based murder.
2.
Reproductive technologies can selectively abort female fetuses or select sex
prior to in vitro fertilization. Others reduce the number of women through
female infanticide.
3.
Femicide is the killing of women and takes the form of adult women who
simply “disappear,” dowry deaths, and bride burnings.
a.
Femicide is not confined to developing nations. Consider the statistics
on intimate partner violence in the United States or the mass killings of
women.
4.
Reproductive Violence
a.
Reproductive violence is coerced or discriminatory infringement on
reproductive rights.
b.
This includes force or exploitation that prohibits someone from
having free will over the decision to become a parent and parent
existing children.
c.
In the United States, this took the form of eugenics and state-funded
programs that forcibly sterilized women involuntarily.
d.
Racism has long affected reproductive regulation, with programs
offering poor minority women free birth control but denied other
health care services.
e.
Norplant was a long-term, implanted contraceptive. Women were
given the choice between having Norplant implanted and jail terms.
States refused to pay to remove Norplant.
f.
Commercial surrogacy disproportionately affects poor women. In
this practice, wealthy women who are unable to conceive or carry a
child pay poor women to carry children for them. The power
dynamic is problematic here, with many women making the decision
to become surrogates based on their own poverty and need for
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money.
II.
Cultural Foundations of Gendered Violence
A.
Individual pathologies alone cannot explain the pervasiveness of gendered violence.
B.
The Normalization of Violence in Media
1.
Gendered violence is frequent and varied in the media, on films and TV, in
music, and video games.
2.
Pornography is sexually explicit material that favorably depicts
subordination, degradation, and nonconsensual sexual behavior. Distinctly,
erotica depicts consensual activities desired by and pleasurable to all parties.
One study found men who viewed mainstream pornography were more likely
to say they would commit rape than men who did not.
C.
The Normalization of Violence by Institutions
1.
Schools
a.
There are 55 colleges and universities subject to investigation because
they have or may have mishandled investigations of sexual assault.
b.
Many students say that they are not taken seriously when reporting a
rape or other sexual assault.
c.
Colleges and universities want to preserve their reputations.
d.
The White House established a special Task Force in 2014, which
provides information and resources on preventing and responding to
sexual assaults on campus.
2.
Family
a.
In families where violence exists, children may grow up assuming
violence is a part of marriage.
b.
Families may encourage women to stay with violent men for
economic security, because it is her duty, or for the sake of the
children.
c.
Immigrant women or women of color may be especially vulnerable
to pressures not to report intimate partner violence.
3.
Law enforcement
a.
The current legal system does not offer sufficient safeguards for
victims. Some law enforcement officials and judges give greater
priority to maintaining a two-parent family than the safety of
survivors.
b.
Laws governing restraining orders need to be strengthened so
people can get protection before tragedy happens.
4.
Language
a.
Language sometimes reflects and sustains cultural acceptance of
gendered violence by obscuring the seriousness of the issue.
b.
Passive language that obscures moral responsibility for violence by
not indicating the abuser fosters permissive attitudes toward abuse.
III.
Resisting Gendered Violence: Where Do We Go from Here?
A.
Personal Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence
1.
The most basic personal choice is to decide you will not engage in or tolerate
violence in your relationships.
2.
Refuse to be a silent bystander. Speak or act to prevent violence.
261
3.
Can join groups on campuses or in communities write or call in to media, teach
your children that nobody has the right to touch them in a sexual way.
B.
Social Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence
1.
These efforts can include supporting educational and social service
institutions, voting for laws that will reduce violence and punish those who
commit it, and working with others to educate communities and create
resources for victims of violence.
2.
The NFL announced in 2014 it would take a more serious stand against
violence in the league.
C.
Taking a Voice
1.
Direct power is the ability to make others do what they would not do on
their own.
2.
Agenda setting can be efforts to shape the public agenda or to engage in
agenda setting in professional and social relationships.
3.
Voice is communicating with others and engaging in everyday cats of
principled resistance. One way to do this is to adopt a traitorous identity or
to challenge sexist attitudes and practices in everyday life.
Journal Entries
1.
Discuss your attitudes toward genital surgery. Do you feel efforts should be made to
intervene in the practices of other cultures? If so, how? If not, why?
2.
Do you think violence in media contributes to actual violence in the real world? If so, what,
if anything, do you think should be done about this? If not, how would you respond to
charges that media does contribute?
3.
Your text lists several ways of reducing gendered violence. Which, if any, appeal to you?
In your current situation, what can you realistically and specifically do to help reduce
gendered violence? Consider if you would like to focus your efforts among friends or
family, locally on your campus and within your community, nationally, or internationally.
4.
Investigate the ways gender-based violence is being addressed in your community. (Your
university likely has an organization devoted to addressing relationship and/or student
violence; similarly, there is likely to be a battered women’s shelter and/or rape crisis center
in your community. You might look up one or more of these organizations online or
otherwise seek out literature from them.) In your journal, reflect on what you learned. Were
you surprised by the information provided? Do you think current efforts to redress gender-
based violence in your community are productive and/or sufficient? Can you think of other
things the community or individuals in your community might do to help lessen gender-
based violence?
Suggested Activities
1.
Reducing Gendered Violence: Assign students to groups of 5 to 7 members. Ask groups to
262
generate plans for reducing gendered violence on your campus. Emphasize that their
suggestions should include ways that both women and men on campus can contribute to
reducing violence. After 20-30 minutes, lead a class discussion that highlights ways women
and men can work together to reduce gendered violence on campus.
2.
Forum Theatre & Agency: Review Thomson and Woods’ (2001) article “Rewriting
gendered scripts: Using forum theatre to teach feminist agency” in Feminist Teacher, 13,
202-212. This article offers an activity in which students interactively “perform” ways to
reduce or end violence in a romantic relationship. This improvisational activity offers all
students a way to actually enact these methods and see how others in the situation may
potentially respond. Roles should be volunteered for and assigned in advance. Allow a full
class period for the performance and debriefing.
3.
Violence-Related Language in Newspapers: In advance of the day you conduct this
exercise, ask students to save copies of 5 daily statewide newspapers (not the campus
newspaper) and to cut out those articles that report on incidents of gendered violence. On
the day of the exercise assign students to groups of 5 to 7 members. Working together, ask
students to analyze the language used in the articles and to assess its accuracy and
responsibility. After students have had 20 minutes to analyze articles, lead a class
discussion of the groups’ conclusions.
4.
Dreamworlds 3: The film Dreamworlds 3 underlines the cumulative effect of one form of
media (MTV) in normalizing violence. If you chose not to show it to accompany Chapter
11, it would be appropriate here. The film lasts approximately 55 minutes. Thus, you may
wish to edit out 10-15 minutes of the film in order to preserve time for processing with
students. In previewing the film before showing it to your class, consider appropriate ways
to deal with the intense emotions the film evokes, including campus counseling services.
5.
Roiphe’s Perspective on Gendered Violence: Assign students to read the opening two
chapters of Katie Roiphe’s The Morning After: Sex, Fear, and Feminism on Campus. Lead
the class in analyzing how Roiphe’s rhetoric influences attitudes toward gendered violence.
6.
Panel: Victim Services Professionals: Plan a panel with representatives from local battered
women’s shelters and rape crisis agencies. You might also include one or two panelists who
are survivors of battering and rape if there are individuals who are willing to discuss their
experiences publicly. Ask the panel to present information and experiences that will
enhance students’ understandings of why victims/survivors of sexual assault sometimes
blame themselves and survivors/victims of abuse often don’t “just walk out” when violence
begins.
7.
Sexual Harassment on Campus: Research the sexual harassment policy of your university
or college and/or invite the campus sexual harassment officer to speak to your class. As
sexual harassment has been named and defined as inappropriate behavior, the issue has
received increasing coverage by various forms of media. Recently television news
programs, such as “Sixty Minutes,” have examined sexual harassment within a variety of
contexts.
263
Following this chapter summary, you will find an example of a sexual harassment policy.
We often distribute this to students one class period before we discuss sexual harassment.
This policy gives ample material for discussion. Familiarize yourself with your campus
policy; inevitably students bring many examples of behaviors they think may qualify as
sexual harassment. In knowing your campus policy, you also can suggest appropriate
avenues to stop harassment. The Sandler & Hughes (1986) article listed in the reference
section of this guide can provide you with additional information.
8.
Gendered Violence Laws in Your State: In small groups, ask students to research
gendered-violence related laws in their state. For instance, they may want to examine the
age of consent, the definition of rape, and the definition of hate crime. Many students are
surprised to find out that legal statutes are much more narrow than they expected. Students
may also want to research which local hospitals will perform a full rape kit (since some
hospitals are not equipped to do so). If students have access to the Internet during class,
they may conduct these investigations during class time. Students should then compile a
“fact sheet” that lists the information they have gathered and distribute it to others who
would benefit from having the information.
9.
Victim vs. Survivor: One of the language-related debates about gendered violence centers
on the language used to refer to targets of violence. Write the words “victim” and
“survivor” on the board. Have students call out other words or phrases they associate with
each term. Then, lead a discussion in large group or encourage discussion in small groups
about the merits and drawbacks of each term. Note: There is no definitive “correct” term.
Controversy surrounds both. This is a good time to remind students that how we label
someone affects how we treat them and our expectations of them.
10.
Learning about Sex Trafficking and Sex Tourism: Sex trafficking (moving people [often
minors], often illegally, in order to use them for prostitution) and sex tourism (vacation
packages that include the opportunity to have sex with prostitutes [often minors] as part of
the trip) are two common practices in many countries. Many people do not know about
these practices and are surprised to find out how widespread they are, including that they
occur in the United States. The University of North Carolina hosted a conference about
these issues in 2008. Their website—http://womenscenter.unc.edu/08conference—offers
many links and information about these practices. Ask students to view this website and its
links (either in class or before class) and discuss their findings. Conclude with a discussion
of actions they can take to address this issue. (Many suggestions are available on the
website. See Donna Bickford’s article, “Now that I Know, What Can I Do?” under “General
Resources” to start.) This activity is primarily about raising awareness. Note: If you prefer
to show a film rather than ask students to view the website, PBS has a documentary called
Lives for Sale that can be purchased for under $20. The film is 58 minutes.
http://www.livesforsale.com/
11.
Cheering for her Rapist: In October 2008, a 16-year-old high school cheerleader,
identified as H.S., accused a fellow student and star athlete, Rakheem Bolton, of rape.
Bolton ultimately pled guilty to misdemeanor assault and was given a suspended sentence.
264
Bolton was allowed to continue playing on school teams while the case was pending, and
H.S. continued to cheer. At a 2009 basketball game, H.S. cheered for the team on which
Bolton played; however, she refused to cheer for Bolton when he approached the foul line to
shoot a free throw. As a result, H.S. was thrown off the cheerleading squad. H.S. sued the
school and lost in federal court. In addition to ruling against her, the court ordered that she
pay the school district $45,000 in attorney’s fees. Discuss this case with the class in terms of
the issues discussed in Chapter 12. Do your students think H.S. should have been required
to cheer for the man who pled guilty to assaulting her? Why or why not? Was it appropriate
for H.S. and her family to sue the school? Was the court’s ruling fair? What does this case
tell us about the normalization of violence by institutions, including schools and the legal
system? It might be useful to provide news coverage of the story prior to
discussing it. Ms. Magazine published an article about the incident that can be found at
http://msmagazine.com/blog/blog/2010/10/15/cheerleader-required-to-cheer-for-man-who-
assaulted-her/. The San Francisco Chronicle wrote about the court’s ruling; that piece can
be found at http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-
bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2011/05/02/MNSI1JAT0E.DTL.
265
SAMPLE SEXUAL HARASSMENT POLICY
POLICY
I.
Sexual harassment by any member of the University is a violation of both law and
University policy, and will not be tolerated in the University community.
II.
Requests for sexual favors, and other deliberate, unwelcome verbal or physical conduct of a
sexual nature by one in an official University position or by a fellow University employee
constitute sexual harassment when, evaluated according to reasonable sensibilities—
A.
submission to such conduct is made either explicitly or implicitly a term or condition of an
individual’s employment or academic standing, or
B.
submission to, or rejection of, such conduct by an individual is used as the basis for
employment or academic decisions affecting that individual, or
C.
such conduct has the purpose or effect of substantially interfering with an individual’s
employment, academic or administrative performance, or creating an intimidating or
offensive environment.
III.
This policy seeks to encourage students, faculty, and employees to express freely, responsibly,
and in an orderly way their opinions and feelings about any problem or complaint of sexual
harassment. Any act by a University employee or agent of reprisal, interference, restraint,
penalty, discrimination, coercion or harassment—overtly or covertly—against a student or an
employee for responsibly using the Policy and its Procedures interferes with free expression
and openness. Accordingly, such acts violate this policy and require appropriate and prompt
disciplinary action.
IV.
This policy shall not be used to bring frivolous or malicious charges against fellow
students, faculty members, or employees.
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