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News Corp. used its political action committee (PAC) in 2010 to contribute more than
$105,500 directly to Democratic candidates and $74,700 directly to Republican candidates,
in addition to more than $45,000 to other Democratic and Republican committees.
General Electric (former owner of NBC) donated $688,900 to Democratic candidates and
$410,000 to Republican candidates through its PAC. In addition, the company donated
$237,000 to the Democratic Governors Association and $205,000 to the Republican
Governors Association. Time Warner (which owns CNN) donated $70,500 to Democratic
candidates in 2010 compared with $41,500 for Republican candidates through its PAC.
The PAC for Viacom (which owns CBS) contributed $108,700 to Democratic candidates and
$64,000 to Republican candidates, plus almost $50,000 more to Republican- and
Democratic-affiliated PACs. Disney (parent company of ABC) gave $110,500 to Democratic
candidates and $95,000 to Republicans through its PAC, plus almost $70,000 for various
political groups for both parties.
• This pattern continued in the 2012 election cycle. According to data collected by
Opensecrets.org, Comcast donated $206,056 to Barack Obama’s campaign and $20,500 to
Mitt Romney’s. CBS’s political action committee (PAC) donated $38,000 to House
Republicans and $11,000 to Senate Republicans. Disney CEO Bob Iger donated $30,800 to
the DNC Services Corporation, $25,000 to the Democratic Senatorial Campaign committee,
and $10,000 to Disney’s own PAC. Time Warner gave $10,750 to Romney, and Rupert
Murdoch gave $25,000 to the National Republican Congressional Committee.
• The 2011 phone-hacking scandal in Britain only intensified these concerns regarding News
Corp.’s influence and cozy relationship with politicians in Britain and in the United States.
MEDIA LITERACY DISCUSSIONS AND EXERCISES
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NEWSPAPERS AND DEMOCRACY
What is the role of a newspaper? If journalism is supposed to be important to democracy, how
much do students learn from newspapers about the decisions that affect their everyday life? Is
there something missing in the local newspaper(s) that students in class would want to know
more about so as to be more active citizens in a democracy?
At the end of 2015, Margaret Sullivan, the “public editor” of the New York Times, wrote two
columns about the challenges of local investigative reporting. Students can read and react to her
assessment. (See http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/06/public-editor/margaret-sullivan-new-
york-times-public-editor.html and http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/13/public-editor/keep-the-
flame-lit-for-investigative-journalism.html.)
NEWSPAPER ANALYSIS
In the Newspaper section, I like to bring in as wide a range of papers as possible (alternative
presses, USA Today, foreign newspapers, etc.) and have the students pass them around and note
the similarities and differences in relation to the newspaper chapter.
—Developed by Karen Pitcher, University of Iowa
COVERING INTERNATIONAL NEWS
The purpose of this Critical Process exercise is to sharpen your analytical approach to news.
Work with a partner or in a small group. Over a period of three weekdays, study the New York
Times, USA Today, and one local daily paper. Devise a chart and a descriptive scheme so that
you can compare how each of the three papers covers international news. You should consider
international news to be any news story that is predominantly about another country or about
another nation’s relationship with the United States. Exclude the sports section of the papers.
Follow these steps as you work on your project:
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1. Description. Count the total number of international news stories in each paper. Which
foreign cities are covered? Which countries? What are the subjects of these stories (civil
wars, anti-Americanism, natural disasters, travelogue profiles, etc.)?
2. Analysis. Using your chart as a guide, write two or three paragraphs discussing patterns that
emerge. What locales get the most attention? What kinds of stories appear most frequently?
In other words, what kind of issue or event makes another country newsworthy? Do not try to
summarize your chart here. Instead, focus on three or four intriguing patterns that you
noticed.
3. Interpretation. Write a two- or three-paragraph critical interpretation of your findings. What
does your analysis mean? Why do some countries appear more frequently than others? Why
do certain kinds of stories seem to get featured?
4. Evaluation. Discuss the limitations of your study. Which paper seemed to do the best job of
covering the rest of the world? Why? Do you think newspapers give us enough information
about other people’s cultures and experiences?
5. Engagement. Either individually or with a group of students, write a letter or e-mail to your
local editor. Report your findings. In the note, discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the
local coverage of international news and other cultures. Mention what the paper does well in
this area, and suggest what the paper might do better. What kind of response did you get?
THE SWEETER EXPERIENCE: PRINT VERSUS ONLINE NEWSPAPERS
Pre-Exercise Questions: New Yorker media critic Jon Katz once wrote: “There’s almost no
media experience sweeter . . . than poring over a good newspaper. In the quiet morning, with a
cup of coffee—so long as you haven’t turned on the TV, listened to the radio, or checked in
online—it’s as comfortable and personal as information gets.” How do you feel about the
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experience of reading a print newspaper? How do you feel about the experience of reading a
newspaper online?
This Critical Process exercise is designed to compare the content and experience of print and
online editions of a newspaper. National newspapers such as USA Today and the New York
Times as well as most regional and local newspapers have web versions of their papers.
1. Description. Look at the same day of the print and web versions of a chosen newspaper.
Describe the content, style, organization, advertisements, and experience of reading both
types of newspapers.
2. Analysis. Is the web version organized in a similar way, with the same section topics? Are the
stories the same, and are they edited in the same way? Does either version offer unique
elements that couldn’t be duplicated in the other format? Which version is more interesting
or easier to read? Is either version more information-based or more interpretive?
3. Interpretation. Does the web version of the newspaper duplicate the print content and reading
experience? (This duplication is called shovel-casting.) How does the medium (print vs.
computer-based) affect the design, content, style, and reading experience of the newspaper?
Why do we prefer one over the other?
4. Evaluation. Will web versions of newspapers prevail over print? Could they coexist? What’s
more important: the news content or the experience of getting the news content?
5. Engagement. Try to make it your habit to read a newspaper every day. Experiment with a
range of different papers and formats. After a while, increase your reading load by reading
both a mainstream newspaper and an alternative news website (i.e., The Weekly Standard,
Common Dreams, Media Channel, or AlterNet) every day. You’ll be amazed at how much
you’ll have to talk about and how much more engaged you are with the world.
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Options: Students can cover several different newspapers in groups or individually. As a
discussion, this exercise can be done in a computer lab, with a live projection of a web
newspaper (if equipment is available). Alternatively, a printout of web newspaper pages could
serve to illustrate the comparison in the discussion.
THE EVOLUTION OF JOURNALISM
As Media & Culture’s Chapter 8 explains, today’s journalism is quite different from the
journalism of the past. In their history, newspapers have reached extremes, from overtly partisan
to superficially neutral and from outlandishly sensational to matter-of-fact reporting. Analyze
what happened along the way in the Critical Process exercise.
1. Description. Look at the difference in reporting styles as illustrated in Media & Culture,
Chapter 8.
2. Analysis. Divide the class into groups of two to review some of the highlights in the
evolution of journalism. Refer to the “Newspapers: The Rise and Decline of Modern
Journalism” time line at the beginning of the chapter; review the history, and consider the
patterns that emerge with each given era.
3. Interpretation. Come up with some appropriate headlines for each era for a major news story.
Be as creative as you want, but try to be true to the spirit of the era. In class, share some of
the best examples with your peers. Together, analyze how your headlines illustrate some
quality of the era. Note that newspapers are not wholly objective reports of the world.
4. Evaluation. Do we still live with the legacy of previous eras of journalism? Do we still see
partisan politics in newspapers? Human interest stories? Investigative journalism? The
inverted pyramid style of reporting? Syndicated columns?
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5. Engagement. When is the last time you sat down to read a good paper? This week, read a
newspaper every day. In your reading, see if previous eras have influenced the paper by
noting some aspect (headline, section, caption) reflective of the distinct eras on your
worksheet. Invest at least one half hour each day reviewing all, and reading some, of your
newspapers. Record your influences on your worksheet.
(Note: Students can easily access online versions of most newspapers. However, for printed
copies of your local newspaper, you may want to contact your local Newspapers in Education
coordinator so you can distribute papers in class.)
—Developed by Matthew Smith, Wittenberg University
TRACKING RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE NEWSPAPER INDUSTRY: A
SEMESTER-LONG CRITICAL PROCESS EXERCISE AND PAPER
In this exercise students discover the most recent developments in the industry, and they become
familiar with industry trade sources. The paper they produce is due in sections, which
correspond with the steps in the Critical Process.
1. Description. Read industry trade sources to get a sense of the main issues affecting the
newspaper industry. Look at the websites of industry trade associations and professional
societies. (Links to websites of some industry trade sources are given in the Classroom
Media Sources below.) Take notes on topics that have multiple stories or mentions in the
current year. What issues or developments in the industry have received a lot of recent
attention, discussion, or commentary in industry sources? (Focus only on information from
the current year—and only from trade sources.) Write a one-page synopsis of the information
you found about current topics in the industry. Cite your sources properly.
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2. Analysis. Look for one development or pattern that has received significant attention on trade
sites and from trade journalists in the current year. Choose one specific trend, and write one
or two pages with details about the information you found about that trend. Continue to track
news about your topic as the semester progresses. Cite sources properly.
3. Interpretation. What does the trend mean for the state of the industry? Is it evolving? How?
What does it tell you about media in general at the current time? What might it say about our
culture or our society? Can your information help us interpret the role of the industry in our
lives? Write up your interpretation in a five-page paper. (The first page should be a synopsis
of the trend, with proper citations.) You might not have to provide information from your
sources for the next four pages because this section is your interpretation of the trend. (Save
any ideas you have about whether the trend is “good” or “bad” for the Evaluation step of the
Critical Process.)
4. Evaluation. Is the trend “good” or “bad?” For the industry? society? culture? democracy? us?
What do you think might happen in the future?
5. Engagement. Are there any actions you can take (related to your trend and the industry)?
Possibilities include posting your views on social media, creating a petition, contacting
people in the industry to see what they think of your interpretation and evaluation, or going
to an industry event if any are held nearby. (This step need not be required if students are not
motivated to take action.)
Note: This exercise works well if each step of the Critical Process is due two weeks after the
prior step is due. Limiting students to only trade sources and only information from the current
year helps keep them on track. Your institution’s librarians should be able to provide students
with information on how to access industry trade sources.
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CLASSROOM MEDIA RESOURCES
LAUNCHPAD FOR MEDIA & CULTURE: launchpadworks.com
Community Voices: Weekly Newspapers (2010, 2:55 minutes). Richard Campbell, Bob Speer,
and Michael House discuss the impact of weekly newspapers.
Investigative Journalism On Screen: All the President’s Men (1976, 1:56 minutes). A brief clip
from the 1976 film All the President’s Men explores the investigative journalism conducted
by Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein during the Watergate scandal.
News Aggregation and Arianna Huffington (2013, 47:39 minutes). Arianna Huffington of the
Huffington Post delivers a keynote address at Inbound, a conference that showcases business
leaders.
Newspapers and the Internet: Convergence (2009, 4:06 minutes). This video discusses some of
the ways newspapers and journalists are adapting to online delivery of news. Featuring
Richard Campbell, John Katsilometes, David Little, and Clarence Page.
Newspapers Now: Balancing Citizen Journalism and Investigative Reporting (2010, 4:32
minutes). Industry professionals Scott Gold and James Rainey discuss the balance between
citizen journalism and investigative reporting.
VIDEOS/DVDS/CDS
All the President’s Men (1976, 135 minutes). Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman play
Washington Post investigative reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, who uncovered
the shady Nixon affairs of Watergate.
The Black Press: Soldiers without Swords (1998, 86 minutes). The first film to chronicle the
history of the black press, with coverage from 1827 through the 1960s. Distributed by
California Newsreel, 877-811-7495; http://newsreel.org.
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Citizen Kane (1941, 119 minutes). The story of a publishing magnate based on the life of
newspaper publisher William Randolph Hearst. Although critics excoriated this film in 1941,
it was eventually heralded as one of the century’s best films. The scene we like to show is the
one, occurring in Bernstein’s memory, where Kane woos the staff of the Chronicle (aka the
New York World) over to the Inquirer (aka the New York Journal). Distributed by Facets
Multimedia, 800-331-6197; http://www.facets.org.
The Myth of the Liberal Media (1997, 60 minutes). Edward Herman and Noam Chomsky
challenge the myth of the “liberal media” and argue that American news media are in effect
subordinated to corporate and conservative interests. Distributed by Media Education
Foundation, 800-897-0089; http://www.mediaed.org.
The Post (2018, 115 minutes). The Washington Post's Katharine Graham (Meryl Streep), the first
female publisher of a major American newspaper, and editor Ben Bradlee (Tom Hanks), race
to catch up with the New York Times to expose a massive cover-up of government secrets
that spanned three decades and four U.S. Presidents. Based on a true story.
Spotlight (2015, 128 minutes). Film about the work of Boston Globe reporters to expose sexual
abuse in the Catholic Church and the subsequent cover-up of the scandal by the Archdiocese
of Boston.
Tell the Truth and Run: George Seldes and the American Press (1996, 111 minutes). This video
illustrates the career of foreign correspondent and media critic George Seldes and raises
important questions about the nature of American news media. Includes interviews with
Ralph Nader, Victor Navasky, and Ben Bagdikian. Distributed by New Day Films, 888-367-
9154; http://www.newday.com.
WEB SITES
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American Press Institute: https://www.americanpressinstitute.org
American Society of Newspaper Editors: http://www.asne.org
Association of Alternative Newsmedia (Association of Alternative Newsweeklies): http://aan.org
Editor & Publisher: http://www.editorandpublisher.com
ipl2 (Internet Public Library and Librarians’ Internet Websites merged):
http://www.ipl.org/div/news
National Newspaper Publishers Association | Black Press of America: http://nnpa.org
News & Tech: http://www.newsandtech.com
News Media Alliance (formerly Newspaper Association of America):
https://www.newsmediaalliance.org
Newspaper Death Watch: http://newspaperdeathwatch.com
Newspaper Guild: http://newsguild.org
Poynter: https://poynter.org
ProPublica: https://www.propublica.org
Village Voice: http://www.villagevoice.com
World Association of Newspapers and News Publishers: http://www.wan-ifra.org
BLOGS
Altercation (Eric Alterman): http://www.thenation.com/blogs/eric-alterman
BuzzMachine (Jeff Jarvis): http://www.buzzmachine.com
The Dish (Andrew Sullivan): http://dish.andrewsullivan.com
InstaPundit.com (Glenn Reynolds): http://pjmedia.com/instapundit
JimRomenesko.com: http://jimromenesko.com
MediaWire (Poynter Institute Online): http://www.poynter.org/news/
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PressThink (Jay Rosen): http://pressthink.org
Talking Points Memo (TPM) (Josh Marshall): http://www.talkingpointsmemo.com
FURTHER READING
Carey, James W. “The Press and the Public Discourse.” Kettering Review (Winter 1992): 9–22.
Danna, Sammy. “The Rise of Radio News” and “The Press-Radio War.” American
Broadcasting. Ed. Lawrence W. Lichty and Malachi C. Topping. New York: Hastings
House, 1975, 338–350.
Emery, Michael, Edwin Emery, and Nancy L. Roberts. The Press and America: An Interpretive
History of the Mass Media. 9th ed. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 2000.
Glasser, Theodore L., ed. The Idea of Public Journalism. New York: Guilford, 1999.
Hallock, Steven M. The Press March to War: Newspapers Set the Stage for Military Intervention
in Post-World War II America. New York: Peter Lang, 2012.
Hellmueller, Lea. The Washington, DC Media Corps in the 21st Century: The Source-
Correspondent Relationship. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
Kaplan, Richard L. Politics and the American Press: The Rise of Objectivity, 1865–1920.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Kovach, Bill, and Tom Rosenstiel. The Elements of Journalism: What Newspeople Should Know
and the Public Should Expect. New York: Three Rivers, 2001.
Lasch, Christopher. “Journalism, Publicity and the Lost Art of Argument.” Gannett Center
Journal (Spring 1990): 1–11.
Lee, Alfred McClung. The Daily Newspaper in America: The Evolution of a Social Instrument.
New York: Routledge, 2000.
Lippmann, Walter. Liberty and the News. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Howe, 1920.
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Mnookin, Seth. Hard News: The Scandals at the New York Times and Their Meaning for
American Media. New York: Random House, 2004.
Mott, Frank Luther. American Journalism: A History of Newspapers in the United States, 1690–
1960. 3rd ed. New York: Macmillan, 1962.
Nerone, John. “The Mythology of the Penny Press.” Critical Studies in Mass Communication,
vol. 4 (December 1987): 376–404.
O’Shea, James. The Deal from Hell: How Moguls and Wall Street Plundered Great American
Newspapers. New York: PublicAffairs, 2011.
Rhodes, Leara D. The Ethnic Press: Shaping the American Dream. New York: Peter Lang, 2010.
Riley, Sam G. The American Newspaper Columnist. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998.
Schudson, Michael. Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers. New
York: Basic, 1978.
________. The Power of News. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.
________. The Sociology of News. New York: Norton, 2012.
Serrin, Judith, and William Serrin, eds. Muckraking! The Journalism That Changed America.
New York: New Press, 2002.
Shapiro, Bruce. Shaking the Foundations: 200 Years of Investigative Journalism in America.
New York: Thunder’s Mouth/Nation, 2003.
Stephens, Mitchell. A History of News: From the Drum to the Satellite. New York: Viking, 1988.
Thompson, Hunter S., ed. by Douglas Brinkley. Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal
Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist, 1968–1976. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000.
Wicker, Tom. On Press. New York: Viking, 1978.
Wolfe, Tom. The Right Stuff New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1979.
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Wolfe, Tom, and E. W. Johnson, eds. The New Journalism. New York: Harper & Row, 1973.
Woodward, Bob, and Carl Bernstein. All the President’s Men. New York: Simon & Schuster,
1974.
