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TELEVISION AND CABLE: PRODUCTION 486
TELEVISION AND CABLE: CULTURE 486
Teaching Philosophy
Teaching a topic that students already know something about can be a luxury. Students have
common experiences watching the same television shows, listening to many of the same songs,
and experiencing media culture firsthand. Some students can even offer a considerable amount of
personal expertise in certain areas of the media.
Teaching a subject that is as universal as media presents a challenge, however. Students have
grown up with various media and have already formulated strong opinions about them. More
often than not, they have arrived at these evaluations without having gone through a critical
process. Our job is to take our students back through that process and help them analyze the
media and culture within a deliberative, informed context. We have found that it’s helpful to rely
on the five critical steps—description, analysis, interpretation, evaluation, and engagement—
outlined in Chapter 1 of Media & Culture. The goal is to bring in examples, scenarios, and case
studies—we try to keep them as current as possible—and engage students in thinking critically
about them. Discussion sections offer a lot of latitude for students to be experimental and
creative, and they often work well when students have done assigned research beforehand or can
draw on their own expertise in a certain area.
It can sometimes take an entire semester for students to begin to question their own assumptions.
But participatory and democratic class discussions are where such critical processes can happen.
ORGANIZING THE COURSE
Media & Culture can be a text for a variety of classes and teaching schedules. The text is
organized thematically, but it also may be taught chronologically or with a focus on journalism
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and its relationship to other mass media. The thematic approach of the text begins with Part 1,
“Digital Media and Convergence,” which introduces critical and ethical processes, the Internet,
digital media, and the concept of media convergence. The text continues with Part 2, “Sounds
and Images,” which covers the recording industry, radio, television, cable, and movies. Part 3,
“Words and Pictures,” includes chapters on newspapers, magazines, and books. Part 4, “The
Business of Mass Media,” deals with advertising, public relations, and media economics. The
final section, Part 5, “Democratic Expression and the Mass Media,” examines journalism ethics,
media effects, and legal issues of media expression.
There are two main reasons behind the thematic organization of the book. First, it’s often best to
understand print culture in terms of what’s happened recently in electronic and digital culture.
The more contemporary media are more pervasive and have shaped media culture with cross–
ownership and technological convergence. The second reason is pedagogical: Students do better
when the course begins with what they are most familiar with. By starting with chapters on such
media as the Internet and sound recording, the book engages students with the cultural landscape
that they are most immersed in: It is where they live.
You may want or need to teach the course differently, however. The following are sample syllabi
for the book’s thematic approach, a traditional chronological approach, and a special journalism–
centered approach.
SAMPLE SYLLABI: SEMESTER SCHEDULE
THEMATIC APPROACH
Digital Media and Convergence
Week 1: Mass Communication: A Critical Approach (Chapter 1)
Week 2: The Internet, Digital Media, and Media Convergence (Chapter 2)
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Digital Gaming and the Media Playground (Chapter 3)
Sounds and Images
Week 3: Sound Recording and Popular Music (Chapter 4)
Week 4: Popular Radio and the Origins of Broadcasting (Chapter 5)
Week 5: Television and Cable: The Power of Visual Culture (Chapter 6)
Week 6: Movies and the Impact of Images (Chapter 7)
Words and Pictures
Week 7: Newspapers: The Rise and Decline of Modern Journalism (Chapter 8)
Week 8: Magazines in the Age of Specialization (Chapter 9)
Week 9: Books and the Power of Print (Chapter 10)
The Business of Mass Media
Week 10: Advertising and Commercial Culture (Chapter 11)
Week 11: Public Relations and Framing the Message (Chapter 12)
Week 12: Media Economics and the Global Marketplace (Chapter 13)
Democratic Expression and the Mass Media
Week 13: The Culture of Journalism: Values, Ethics, and Democracy (Chapter 14)
Week 14: Media Effects and Cultural Approaches to Research (Chapter 15)
Week 15: Legal Controls and Freedom of Expression (Chapter 16)
CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH
Week 1: Mass Communication: A Critical Approach (Chapter 1)
Words and Pictures
Week 2: Books and the Power of Print (Chapter 10)
Week 3: Newspapers: The Rise and Decline of Modern Journalism (Chapter 8)
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Week 4: Magazines in the Age of Specialization (Chapter 9)
Sounds and Images
Week
5:
Sound Recording and Popular Music (Chapter 4)
Week
6:
Popular Radio and the Origins of Broadcasting (Chapter 5)
Week
7:
Movies and the Impact of Images (Chapter 7)
Week
8:
Television and Cable: The Power of Visual Culture (Chapter 6)
Week
9:
The Internet, Digital Media, and Media Convergence (Chapter 2)
Digital Gaming and the Media Playground (Chapter 3)
The Business of Mass Media
Week
10:
Advertising and Commercial Culture (Chapter 11)
Week
11:
Public Relations and Framing the Message (Chapter 12)
Week
12:
Media Economics and the Global Marketplace (Chapter 13)
Democratic Expression and the Mass Media
Week
13:
The Culture of Journalism: Values, Ethics, and Democracy (Chapter 14)
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Week
14:
Media Effects and Cultural Approaches to Research (Chapter 15)
Week
15:
Legal Controls and Freedom of Expression (Chapter 16)
JOURNALISM APPROACH
Week 1: Mass Communication: A Critical Approach (Chapter 1)
Journalism and the Mass Media
Week 2: Newspapers: The Rise and Decline of Modern Journalism (Chapter 8)
Week 3:
Magazines in the Age of Specialization (Chapter 9)
Week 4:
Popular Radio and the Origins of Broadcasting (Chapter 5)
Week 5:
Television and Cable: The Power of Visual Culture (Chapter 6)
Week 6:
The Internet, Digital Media, and Media Convergence (Chapter 2)
Week 7:
The Culture of Journalism: Values, Ethics, and Democracy (Chapter 14)
Competing Voices and Values
Week 8:
Public Relations and Framing the Message (Chapter 12)
Week 9:
Advertising and Commercial Culture (Chapter 11)
Week 10:
Media Economics and the Global Marketplace (Chapter 13)
Week 11:
Legal Controls and Freedom of Expression (Chapter 16)
Media Effects and Cultural Approaches to Research (Chapter 15)
Other Voices in the Media Landscape
Week 12:
Books and the Power of Print (Chapter 10)s
Week 13:
Sound Recording and Popular Music (Chapter 4)
Week 14:
Movies and the Impact of Images (Chapter 7)
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Week 15:
Digital Gaming and the Media Playground (Chapter 3)
SAMPLE SYLLABI: QUARTER SCHEDULE
THEMATIC APPROACH
Digital Media and Convergence
Week 1: Mass Communication: A Critical Approach (Chapter 1)
The Internet, Digital Media, and Media Convergence (Chapter 2)
Digital Gaming and the Media Playground (Chapter 3)
Sounds and Images
Week 2: Sound Recording and Popular Music (Chapter 4)
Week 3: Popular Radio and the Origins of Broadcasting (Chapter 5)
Week 4: Television and Cable: The Power of Visual Culture (Chapter 6)
Week 5: Movies and the Impact of Images (Chapter 7)
Words and Pictures
Week 6: Newspapers: The Rise and Decline of Modern Journalism (Chapter 8)
Week 7: Magazines in the Age of Specialization (Chapter 9)
Books and the Power of Print (Chapter 10)
The Business of Mass Media
Week 8: Advertising and Commercial Culture (Chapter 11)
Public Relations and Framing the Message (Chapter 12)
Week 9: Media Economics and the Global Marketplace (Chapter 13)
Democratic Expression and the Mass Media
Week 10: The Culture of Journalism: Values, Ethics, and Democracy (Chapter 14)
Media Effects and Cultural Approaches to Research (Chapter 15)
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Legal Controls and Freedom of Expression (Chapter 16)
CHRONOLOGICAL APPROACH
Week 1: Mass Communication: A Critical Approach (Chapter 1)
Words and Pictures
Week 2: Books and the Power of Print (Chapter 10)
Newspapers: The Rise and Decline of Modern Journalism (Chapter 8)
Magazines in the Age of Specialization (Chapter 9)
Sounds and Images
Week 3: Sound Recording and Popular Music (Chapter 4)
Week 4: Popular Radio and the Origins of Broadcasting (Chapter 5)
Week 5: Movies and the Impact of Images (Chapter 7)
Week 6: Television and Cable: The Power of Visual Culture (Chapter 6)
Week 7: The Internet, Digital Media, and Media Convergence (Chapter 2)
Digital Gaming and the Media Playground (Chapter 3)
The Business of Mass Media
Week 8: Advertising and Commercial Culture (Chapter 11)
Public Relations and Framing the Message (Chapter 12)
Week 9: Media Economics and the Global Marketplace (Chapter 13)
Democratic Expression and the Mass Media
Week 10: The Culture of Journalism: Values, Ethics, and Democracy (Chapter 14)
Media Effects and Cultural Approaches to Research (Chapter 15)
Legal Controls and Freedom of Expression (Chapter 16)
JOURNALISM APPROACH
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Journalism and the Mass Media
Week 1: Mass Communication: A Critical Approach (Chapter 1)
Newspapers: The Rise and Decline of Modern Journalism (Chapter 8)
Week 2: Magazines in the Age of Specialization (Chapter 9)
Week 3: Popular Radio and the Origins of Broadcasting (Chapter 5)
Week 4: Television and Cable: The Power of Visual Culture (Chapter 6)
Week 5: The Internet, Digital Media, and Media Convergence (Chapter 2)
The Culture of Journalism: Values, Ethics, and Democracy (Chapter 14)
Competing Voices and Values
Week 6: Public Relations and Framing the Message (Chapter 12)
Advertising and Commercial Culture (Chapter 11)
Week 7: Media Economics and the Global Marketplace (Chapter 13)
Legal Controls and Freedom of Expression (Chapter 16)
Other Voices in the Media Landscape
Week 8: Books and the Power of Print (Chapter 10)
Sound Recording and Popular Music (Chapter 4)
Week 9: Movies and the Impact of Images (Chapter 7)
Digital Gaming and the Media Playground (Chapter 3)
Researching the Impact of Mass Media on Society
Week 10: Media Effects and Cultural Approaches to Research (Chapter 15)
ADVICE FROM SEASONED INSTRUCTORS
Preparing a new class or revising teaching methods can be difficult. Below are some general
examples of classroom-tested activities, assignments, and approaches to teaching Media &
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Culture from several experienced instructors.
• Make the Media Strange. If I had any advice to give new instructors, it would be to
emphasize that we need to make the media seem strange to our students. They have lived
with these modes of communication for their whole lives and most students accept the media
as naturally as the air around them. I try to emphasize that the media are not natural and
require a more critical response beyond mere acceptance. The instructor is for many students
the lone voice in the wilderness, calling out that what appears to be natural because of its
pervasiveness is a human construct that may be used and misused by human beings. Media &
Culture is a great book to help emphasize this key point of media literacy instruction because
Campbell and company make a similar point early and often throughout the text.
—Matthew Smith, Wittenberg University
• Don’t Be Overwhelmed. For new instructors I would advise that there is a lot of material in
the book (discussion questions, paper topics, etc.), and not to be overwhelmed. . . . I’ve found
both the Review Questions and Questioning the Media sections to be useful. The Review
Questions make for good term paper topics, and the Questioning the Media questions seem
particularly good for class discussions.
—Larry Burriss, Middle Tennessee State University
• Go over the Big Picture. I would urge an instructor to try to go over the “big picture” of
media on the first day—to get students thinking about how we come to “know” things (which
is often through reading, watching, etc.) and how important the media are as a site of study.
Also, I like to take a “media ecology” approach and get them thinking about the differences
in media forms. So, I’ll often ask them things like, “Why are people more concerned about
violence in television than violence in books?” or “Can you imagine staying focused on a
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three-hour radio program? Why or why not?” Such an approach asks them to think about the
properties of certain media forms and serves as a useful place to come back to as you move
through the mediums covered in the book.
—Karen Pitcher, University of Iowa
• Provide a Safe Environment. Framing the course in a nonthreatening manner is crucial the
first day and throughout the term. First, instructors should prepare the students by mentioning
that the critical/cultural approach is not one they will have to adopt but one they must
understand. Many first- and second-year students resist media theory that challenges what
they learned in high school.
Second, students must know that they are free to disagree with the instructor and with one
another, provided they do so in a respectful manner. This approach creates a “safe”
environment for everyone and allows the instructor to adjust the class to student concerns
with the subject matter. Third, provide a brief introduction to critical media theory. I often
begin with a brief lecture on Marx, the Frankfurt School, and British and American Cultural
Studies. The lecture breaks down the general ideas of these scholars/schools of thought into a
few brief sentences and helps students understand that they will be exposed to ideas outside
the traditional view and why such views matter. . . . The classes I taught had about 125
students, and lecturing was the standard for most class meetings. We had a Q&A session
once every three or four weeks, wherein students could ask the instructor questions and share
ideas with their peers. With a large class, it would be a good idea to have students in small
groups read the extended focus on critical processes, then ask each group to answer a short
series of three to five questions. The groups can then discuss their answers among themselves
and present them to the class after each group is finished.
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—Frank Perez, University of Texas at El Paso
• Stay Flexible. My advice to instructors using this text for the first time would be to stay
flexible. There is so much material in the text that you will not be able to give equal time to
all topics. Create a theme or themes and emphasize that focus in each chapter. For example,
the influence of technology development is a theme present throughout the book. Also, I’d
say it’s essential to incorporate the news of the week into the class to make it timely and
relevant to students. For example, Janet Jackson’s wardrobe malfunction at the Super Bowl is
about the best introduction to FCC regulations.
—Donna Hemmila, Diablo Valley College
• Ask for Help. Since 1984, I have taught media and culture (which we call Introduction to
Mass Communications) most quarters/semesters—a total of probably thirty-five or so times. .
. . Lecturing to a big class (eighty or more students) for the first time can be intimidating
enough without the fear of getting lost in your message. My best advice to a new instructor is
to pick the brains and borrow the materials of experienced colleagues, using that foundation
to let you move ahead confidently as you develop your own materials and style. Starting
purely from scratch in preparing to teach for the first time is a really bad idea unless you have
no colleague resources on whom/which to call. . . .
My introduction to mass communications is a general-education course taught at the
freshman level and is a popular choice on my campus. Class size ranges from a modest
seventy to a horrifying 260. I teach the class without the benefit of teaching assistants or
other help. Thus formal assignments (i.e., work to be done and handed in) are impossible to
manage. The course grade is based on scores from three or four objective exams that are
computer-scored. The teaching methods I have found most effective in such large classes
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involve (1) using an overhead-projected lecture outline to guide the students in taking notes
as I expand on the outline and (2) requiring a class manual that includes lists of questions for
every audiovisual used in the course to help students in taking notes over the video material.
—Marshel Rossow, Minnesota State University, Mankato
FACILITATING IN–CLASS DISCUSSIONS
BASIC SUGGESTIONS
• To begin, use brief narrative accounts to set the context for classroom interaction.
• Get students to talk about themselves and then to think about their experiences in a larger
context.
• Ask students to fill out a Profile Form (see pp. 37–38 in this manual), which allows you to
get to know their names and some of their interests early in the course and then integrate this
information into your class discussions.
• Assign the Oral History Project (see pp. 38–41 in this manual), which asks students to
interview people in their seventies, eighties, or even nineties about their experiences with
different media. This assignment makes history come alive for students (names like
Paramount and The Shadow will suddenly make sense to them), and it’s a fabulous way to
bring students into discussions about early sound recording, film, radio, and TV.
• Ask frequent questions that demand specific answers, such as “What is your understanding of
. . . ?” and “How would you evaluate . . . ?” In other words, ask questions that can’t be
answered with a yes or no. Also, ask numerous follow-up questions, such as “Why do you
agree?” “Can you elaborate?” “Would you tell me more?” and “Can you give an example?”
• Avoid wasteful, overgeneralized questions that go nowhere, such as “Does everyone
understand?” “Have I made myself clear?” and “Are there any questions?” A student rarely
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responds to any of these questions because they address what students don’t know instead of
what they do know. Also, because these questions call for an answer of either yes or no,
whereby silence indicates understanding, an instructor might infer that learning has occurred
when in fact it hasn’t.
• In dealing with students’ responses, make sure they know that all answers, even wrong
answers, are part of a critical investigation. The aim of discussions should always be to arrive
at the best interpretation and judgment. In this process, students need to think beyond their
personal experiences and see media and culture through a larger lens. As instructors, we can
offer students a new way to look at things and new things to see. Through practice with the
critical process, students should eventually gain the tools for a lifetime of critical decisions,
evaluations, and even activism.
• Encourage a free flow of divergent ideas. Make sure your students avoid personal attacks,
however, and also be sure to synthesize wandering discussions.
• Call on students randomly, not just on those whose hands are raised.
• Create a climate of trust, support, acceptance, and respect.
SPECIFIC STRATEGIES
Questioning the Media: “Think-Pair-Share”
The “think-pair–share” strategy uses the chapter-opening questions and the Questioning the
Media section in the Chapter Review to allow students to try out their ideas in a one-on-one
context. The probing questions can help students explore the implications of the information
discussed in each chapter and can provide great discussion points for the class.
First, assign one of the questions and allow students about two minutes of “think time” to
reflect independently and write down a few ideas. Then ask each student to find a partner and
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give them two minutes of “pair time” to discuss the questions’ content and explore each other’s
ideas. Finally, open up the question for class discussion. This strategy is an efficient use of time
that can energize the class and stimulate a free flow of ideas.
Common Threads
The Common Threads section at the end of each chapter is designed to help instructors connect
themes to different topics throughout the course. These sections also offer questions to spur
deeper reflection and discussion about important media effects. The Common Threads ideas can
even be used as in–class activities. For example, the Common Thread feature for Chapter 4 is
how sound recording technologies and the development of digital singles drive the kind of music
we hear. An instructor could ask students to bring their iPods or other MP3 players to class to
discuss both their portable music choices and what those choices say about the students as
consumers and society as a whole.
Research-Based Discussion
Some of the Media Literacy exercises ask students to conduct their own informal surveys, gather
material from their personal music collections, or do library research in preparation for a class
discussion. Students bring their findings or media materials to class and draw on their own
discoveries about their cultural environment. Out-of-class preparation can lead to invigorating
critical discussions.
Seminar-Style Presentations
Short (three– to five-minute) presentations by one or a few students on designated days can often
lead to effective and stimulating discussions. The students don’t necessarily need to lead the
class, but they should prepare for the class by developing a presentation. These presentations can
be used to begin the discussion.
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The key to effective learning retention is owning the discovery. Create situations in which
the students piece knowledge together on their own and have an “Aha!” moment. The best
situation is when a student gains new insight and then shares that discovery with others.
If we demand more mental effort of our students, it may be more painful in the short run, but
it will be extremely satisfying in the long run. We are far better off having our students’ respect
than their immediate approval. When students say at the end of a semester, “You’ve changed the
way I see television” or “Now I can never listen to my favorite bands in the same way,” we’ve
helped them gain a critical perspective. That’s the goal.
STRATEGIES FOR WRITING ASSIGNMENTS
Many writing assignments can be extremely valuable. Even though students may complain about
the workload, the more they write, the more they retain. What’s most important about writing is
that it aids students in developing the logic of a critical perspective.
Possible writing assignments can be divided into three categories:
1. Private writing for one’s self, which allows a student to take the time to think about a topic.
These assignments could involve formulating answers to the Review Questions at the end of
every chapter.
2. Public writing for the class, which puts pressure on students to make sense in front of their
peers yet leaves room for them to take risks and be creative. These short assignments could
ask students to take a position on a certain topic, critically evaluate a certain aspect of the
mass media, or give a personal viewpoint on media consumption. All these approaches could
springboard into lively class discussions.
3. Formal public writing, which consists of short or long papers that the instructor evaluates.
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Although nearly everyone agrees on the value of writing, the reality for many instructors is
large class sizes with little grading assistance. To keep writing in the curriculum but not become
overwhelmed by daunting stacks of papers, instructors may wish to assign a media journal. For
example, students could be asked to respond to one or more Questioning the Media questions at
the end of each chapter, write a short reaction to the chapter, or both. Media journals can be kept
in notebooks, or weekly entries can be e-mailed to the instructor, who could then respond more
quickly and informally to the student. A more public version of the media journal is an electronic
computer conference, which can be set up exclusively for course use at many colleges and
universities via a mailserv for e-mail or through a web-based environment such as Blackboard.
With this kind of writing assignment, students can post messages responding to the textbook and
read other students’ postings while instructors can also engage in the forum. Online writing
assignments are best used only when students have a basic familiarity with the technology,
however.
ASSIGNMENTS AND ACTIVITIES FROM SEASONED INSTRUCTORS
1. Activity Idea: What’s Your Media Guilty Pleasure?
What is your guilty pleasure? It could be anything from a TV show/genre to particular books,
magazines, websites, or music genres/groups. Is there anything you feel embarrassed or
ashamed about consuming? The more specific the answer, the better. Why do you feel guilty
about it? Does this guilt run against the norms of your gender? Your age? What youth culture
currently determines as “cool”? What society sees as worthwhile? (Note: This activity is
another good way to get the ball rolling on the tasteful/trashy debate outlined in Media &
Culture in Chapter 1. You may want to ask students to read their guilty pleasure out loud or
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to collect the papers and redistribute them for others to read. From there, you may want to
break it down on the board.)
General Discussion Questions (use within or separate from activities)
• Is there anything you can think of that is “universally trashy”? Or universally in good
taste?
• What does it take for something to move from “trashy” to accepted, popular, and
revered? Any good examples from the rise of popular music?
• When it comes to music, do you have a strong identification/association with a taste
culture (i.e., do you embrace the values of the taste culture, and if so, to what extent)?
How important is taste culture for you in your social associations?
• What are some examples of strong taste cultures in American society, particularly for
music?
• What kind of influence does popular music have in American society? Has it changed in
recent years? If so, how?
• On the whole, are Americans seen as having good taste? Why or why not? Is there a
country/culture that seemingly is always tasteful in its cultural products?
—Developed by Karen Pitcher, University of Iowa
2. Profile Form
Last name, first name (print large and clearly): ______________________________
What name do you prefer to be called in class? ______________________________
Place photocopy of your ID or a photo here:
E-mail address:
Major:
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Year in school:
Why are you taking this course?
What career plans are you considering?
What do you like to do when you aren’t in class or studying?
If you have a job, what is it, and where do you work?
Tell me something about yourself to help me remember you:
Tell me what mass media you enjoy, in this order:
Websites:
Sound recordings:
Radio stations:
TV shows (network and cable):
Movies:
Newspapers:
Magazines:
Books:
Advertisements:
What other considerations should I understand to help you be successful in this course?
Your signature: ______________________________
—Adapted from Phyllis V. Larsen, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
3. Oral History Project
Interview a person in his or her seventies, eighties, or nineties—someone who likes to talk!—
and ask questions about your interviewee’s mass media experiences in the twentieth century
(1930s on). Use the questions below as a starting point. If you don’t have a family member or
39
other acquaintance in this age bracket, there are plenty of retirement communities and
nursing homes in the area filled with people who would love to talk to you. (You may want
to give your students a list of local retirement communities and nursing homes.)
a. Sound Recording: What records did you listen to? Who was your favorite recording
artist?
What kind of record player did you have, and where was it in your home?
Was there any kind of music you weren’t supposed to listen to? Why?
Were you allowed to play music whenever you wanted, or were there parental limitations in your
home?
How much did a record cost?
Where did you buy your records?
How did you find out about the artists you listened to?
What did your parents think about records and record players?
b. Radio: What do you remember about your experiences with radio?
What kinds of programs did you listen to (entertainment, music, talk, etc.)?
When were they on, and why did you like them?
Do you remember anything about the early radio commercials?
Do you remember any public concern about radio commercials?
Do you remember any educational radio programs?
What technical problems did you experience with your radio set?
Do you have some specific memories (good or bad) about listening to the radio when you were
young? What are they?
What was it like when FM radio became available?
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c. Television/Cable: What was it like when TV became available?
Where did you watch your first TV programs, and what was the viewing experience like?
How much did your family’s first TV set cost, and what factors figured into its purchase?
What was reception like?
What was a typical family viewing session like?
How did TV change your home life?
What do you remember about the corporate sponsors of TV shows?
What (if anything) do you remember about the quiz-show scandals?
What do you remember about the first thirty–second TV commercials?
How do your television experiences in the 1950s compare with your television experiences now?
If you have it, how did you decide to get cable or satellite TV? What factors went into this
decision?
d. Movies: What were your first moviegoing experiences like, and how were they
different from today?
What were some of your favorite films growing up, and why?
Do you remember anything about Al Jolson and the first talkies?
What do you remember about the excitement surrounding Gone with the Wind?
Were there films your parents forbade you to see? What were they, and why were you not
allowed to see them?
What films were the most influential for you?
Please organize your interview information according to the following guidelines, trying to make
your paper as readable and accessible as possible:
• Type in 12-point single-spaced Times New Roman.