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Chapter 9

The Internet and New Technologies: The Media

Converge

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Chapter Opener: The Internet has changed the world, revolutionizing and encompassing all

forms of mass communication—not replacing them but converging them. However, this

connectedness is not without risks to privacy and security, as is illustrated by the example of

WikiLeaks.

I. The Early History of the Internet

The Cold War prompted the United States to spend money on research that eventually

developed the Internet.

A. Military Functions, Civic Roots. The Internet began in the 1960s as a Defense

Department communications system called ARPAnet.

II. The Evolution of the Internet: Going Commercial, Getting Social, Making Meaning

By 2005, the Web had evolved from e–mail and Web page display to a powerful

commercial and social network.

A. The Commercialization of the Internet. As the Web became a mass medium, it

quickly became commercialized.

1. The World Begins to Browse. HTML code that could be read by all computers

and Web browsers that enabled better navigation made the Web accessible to

mass audiences for the first time.

2. Users Link in through Telephone and Cable Wires. The first connections to the

The Web Gets Social. Multiple platforms allow the creation and sharing of all

manner of media content.

Social Networking Sites. The popularity of social media like Facebook,

Twitter, and Pinterest, combined with an explosion in mobile devices, has

made our relationship with the Internet one that is largely managed through

apps or platforms for specific functions.

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Content Communities. YouTube is the most well–known example of a site

built for sharing content.

The Next Era: The Semantic Web. The next stage of the Internet involves a

continuing evolution of our relationship with it, enabling computers and people to

work in cooperation using tools like Apple’s Siri and the Internet of things.

III.

The Economics of the Internet

No one owns the Internet, which is a medium characterized by few regulations and a

strong entrepreneurial ethic.

Ownership: Controlling the Internet. Several companies have emerged as the

leading forces that seek to “control” the Internet.

Microsoft. With early roots in software, Microsoft was forced to develop a

digital strategy to remain competitive.

Google. Established in 1998, this search engine has found multiple ways to

change its business model to compete with changes in technology.

Advertising. Technology has made it possible to reach individuals through targeted

advertising, making the user experience unique.

C. The Noncommercial Web. Despite powerful commercial forces, the Internet

continues to be a participatory medium.

1. Open–Source Software. Independent software creators like Linux persist in

developing alternative options to software developed by large companies like

Microsoft.

IV. Security and Appropriateness on the Internet

When you do things like sign up for an e–mail account or shop online, you give away

personal information, which is something that you don’t need to do to use other media.

This characteristic of the Internet raises concerns about security and content.

A. Information Security: What’s Private? The Internet can be a treacherous place.

•

Government Surveillance. Government agencies around the world have

used the Internet to gather huge amounts of data on citizens.

•

Online Fraud. The Internet can be a conduit for identity theft and phishing.

• Unethical Data Gathering. E–commerce sites often get customers’ personal

information using cookies and spyware.

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Personal Safety: Online Predators, Spreading Hate, and Deciding What’s

The Internet in a Democratic Society

Some say the Internet is the most democratic social network ever conceived, but others

say it has created division between those who can afford to use it and those who can’t.

A. Access: Closing the Digital Divide. As the Internet expands as a global network, a

key issue is the digital divide, whereby the rich have access to the latest media

technology and the poor do not.

Ownership and Customization. The biggest threat to the Internet’s democratic

potential may be the increasing power of commercial interests. Americans are

LECTURE TOPICS

Describe the developmental, entrepreneurial, and mass medium stages as they relate to

the Internet. Discuss why some refer to the 1990s as “the golden age of the Internet.”

Discuss how the Internet is different from other mass media: To what extent are we

“users” rather than “consumers”? Explore how the “free” nature of the Internet comes

into conflict with corporate interests and what business models have worked for

companies seeking profits on the Internet.

3. Explore the impact of the Internet on democracy. Discuss the consequences of the

LECTURE SPIN–OFFS

The Early History of the Internet

• President Bill Clinton pushed Internet use in his 1997 State of the Union address (which

was carried live over the Internet for the first time). Calling the Internet “a new town

square,” “a teacher of all subjects,” “a connection to all cultures,” and “a necessity,”

Clinton called for a computer in every home over the next decade. The push to

computerize the United States has certainly been a boon for the computer industry,

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• Schools today are finding increasingly creative ways to use computers after initial

struggles to figure out how to incorporate them in the curriculum. For example, a math

class in a San Francisco middle school is requiring students to use their iPads to create a

catering budget for a movie and make a presentation for a bid for the job. Students have

• Among the fastest–growing applications of Internet technology are closed systems

called intranets. These password–protected Webs are used for communication within

companies and organizations. How do these portals work in today’s mobile

environment?

Further Reading:

Valerie Bolden–Barrett, “Mobile Functionality May Be the Key to Making

Company Intranets More Appealing,” HR Dive, June 19, 2017,

Paul Swaddle, “Here’s How and Why Mobiles Are Making the Intranet

• Sociologists twenty years ago predicted that new technologies would help boost work

productivity, allow for three–day weekends, and increase leisure time overall. Instead,

people began to bring their laptops and cell phones home, and they installed home

Internet connections, creating instant access to office work at all times. In effect, they

began to use technology to increase their work hours.

Further Reading:

“The Internet of Things Will Define the Workplace of the Future,” European CEO,

Duncan White, “The Workplace of the Future,” The Business Times, July 5, 2017,

The Evolution of the Internet: Going Commercial, Getting Social, Making Meaning

• Here are four myths about commercial search engines that the industry has been very

good at sustaining:

1. Search engines are impartial information tools.

2. Search engines search the entire Web, gleaning the most relevant results.

3. Search engines vary greatly, thus offering choice and a competitive

marketplace.

4. Search engines are the only place to go for relevant information on the Web.

• Search engines were once considered a failed business idea because they were only a

conduit to other pages. In other words, they lacked stickiness; no one stayed long

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enough to see the advertising. Then search engine portals began experimenting with

sponsored links, a list of two or three paying sites that appear above the actual search

results. Because sponsored links are so highly targeted (they directly relate to the search

terms that users type in), they became enormously profitable and are some of the hottest

properties on the Web. As a result, commercial search engines have experienced a

gradual commercialization, hardly impartial information tools. Instead of “searching the

entire Web,” search engines intentionally search through a greater number of “paying”

sites. Moreover, because only a few search engines power almost all others (Google,

Yahoo!, and Bing) and because these search engines promote the most popular “known”

• Explain how the Internet converges with other technologies, and discuss how these new

technologies and social media can potentially transform businesses, institutions such as

schools or government, neighborhoods and cities, and finally our own homes. Discuss

the possibilities and limitations of newer technology like smartphones and tablets. Help

students understand the distinctions among various terms, such as Internet, Web, WiFi,

Bluetooth, media/medium, platform, and technology.

• Understanding the way in which people interact with the Internet goes beyond the

content available on the Internet. Arguably just as important are the tools that people

use to go online. Discuss how those options have changed since the mid–1990s and what

• Mobile phones are multipurpose devices at the center of digital convergence. For

example, they are now used as money exchange devices. Retailers can turn a mobile

phone or tablet into a point of sale (a digital cash register) with Square, a credit card

reader that plugs into a mobile device. Enabling consumers to use their mobile phones

to exchange money without involving credit card companies and their high fees is the

next goal in digital transactions. Cash remains the most secure medium for information

security, though, because it contains no personal information at all.

• Apple has released new versions/variations of iPhones every year since the first iPhone

was sold in 2007. Here is the chronology of iPhones with the dates of their release:

iPhone 3G in 2008, iPhone 3GS in 2009, iPhone 4 in 2010, iPhone 4s in 2011, iPhone 5

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The Economics of the Internet

Some more facts about Google:

• Google data centers:

• Although you could find it on Google Maps, Google doesn’t advertise its global

network of computers. In one location—a barren stretch of desert along the Oregon–

Washington border—a single computer complex stretches over two football fields.

The multibillion–dollar “factory” of computer power handles such an enormous

number of search queries that two four–story–high cooling plants work twenty–four

hours a day to keep the heat down.

• In October 2006, Google acquired YouTube, paying $1.65 billion (and causing people

to jokingly refer to the acquisition as “GooTube”). This acquisition was no joke,

though; it sent waves through the media industry. The deal started an online video

entertainment and copyright war between Google and the old media establishment,

including Viacom, Disney, and Time Warner.

• The problem that media companies have with YouTube is unique: They disdain

losing revenue when their content is posted on YouTube. On the other hand,

YouTube’s massive reach can lead to increased exposure to their content,

particularly with younger consumers. Saturday Night Live, for example, has

• A few questions to ask students about Google’s role as an access point for information:

•

What is Google: an advertising firm or a search firm?

•

What does it mean that Google is a publicly traded company?

•

If certain searchable information becomes threatening to Google, couldn’t Google

Net Neutrality

Discuss the Federal Communications Commission’s decision to approve net neutrality rules

(under Title II). Note the different perspectives among Internet companies, consumers, and

media activists regarding the FCC’s February 2015 net neutrality decision. Then, discuss the

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latest developments, including what has occurred since President Trump nominated (and the

Senate confirmed) Ajit Pai as Chairman of the FCC.

Further Reading:

Devin Coldewey, “Senate Confirms Ajit Pai as FCC Chairman,” TechCrunch,

The Noncommercial Web

Linux is Microsoft’s main rival for PC operating systems. Because Linux is open–source

software, it allows programmers worldwide to participate in a major computer development.

Digital Archiving

The Wayback Machine, a key component of the Internet Archive, was launched in April

1996. Its millions of computer codes, called “bots,” automatically search the Internet and

copy content. The bots copy the entire Web (a task that in 2005 took about two months).

Security and Appropriateness on the Internet

• Discuss the trade–off between privacy and personalization. Services like My Yahoo!

offer personalization to their users; that is, they allow users to organize Internet

information according to their specific preferences. Users visiting their personalized My

Yahoo! page, for example, can retrieve specific types of news, weather reports, sports

scores, horoscopes, television schedules, and state lottery results as well as their favorite

• Almost all companies promise not to sell their consumer data, but they do not mention

that they sometimes rent such information, sending messages to people on its list on

behalf of a third party.

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Further Reading:

Lisa Vaas, “Yahoo Email Privacy Lawsuit Settled,” Naked Security, September 1,

•

Online harassment is a major concern. A 2017 study by the Pew Research Center found

that harassment “is now a ‘feature’ of life online for many Americans . . . 41% of

Americans have been personally subjected to harassing behavior online, and an even

larger share (66%) has witnessed these behaviors directed at others.”

MEDIA LITERACY DISCUSSIONS AND EXERCISES

IN BRIEF: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES THEN AND NOW

Describe the information technologies that your parents or their peers use at work. Describe

the information technologies that your grandparents used at work. Describe the information

IN DEPTH: THE WEB AS A UNIVERSE OF KNOWLEDGE

Pre–Exercise Question: Do search engines supply researchers with a “universe of

knowledge”?

This media literacy exercise is designed to help students evaluate search engine

research. Divide your class into an even number of teams and assign every two teams the

same research topic. The research topics should cover a wide range of subjects and ideas

and could be related to textbook chapters. Examples are Plato, Johannes Gutenberg, the

Lindbergh baby kidnap–murder case, Charlie Chaplin, obesity, and media convergence.

Within a set time, one group will research the topic using all library facilities, excluding

search engines, while the other group will research the topic using only Google, Yahoo!, or

Bing. Ask students to return with a brief annotated description of the best fifteen or twenty

sources they discover.

1. Description. Ask your students to present and describe the materials they have

researched, perhaps starting with the search engine group followed by the library group.

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paper if Web material cannot be considered permanent? Did this research experience

vary by topic? How did the breadth of both searches compare?

Evaluation. Is it feasible to do legitimate research via search engines? How comfortable

do you feel about relying solely on search engines for research? How legitimate are

Web sources? How can you tell? Are there subject areas in which the Web is clearly

IN DEPTH: INFORMATION SECURITY: WHAT’S PRIVATE?

(Note: A version of this activity is now available on LaunchPad for Media Essentials. See

the Media Literacy Practice Activity for this chapter.)

1. Description. Interview a sample of people about their online privacy. Has their privacy

been violated through their Internet use? Have they divulged personal information to

gain access to certain Web sites? Do they enter contests, play games, download files, or

interests? Have they noticed Internet advertising that targets their personal tastes? Do

they receive spam e–mail?

2. Analysis. What sorts of patterns emerge from your interviews? Is online privacy

consistently violated in particular ways? Are there certain strategies for maintaining

privacy on the Internet? Are the interviewees concerned about their online privacy?

IN BRIEF: APPROPRIATENESS: WHAT SHOULD BE ONLINE?

This “think–pair–share” exercise focuses on the content of the Internet.

1. Think. On your own, spend two to three minutes writing down what kind of content—if

any—you think should not be on the Internet.

2. Pair. Compare notes with your neighbor. Are you concerned about what children might

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CLASSROOM MEDIA RESOURCES

VIDEOS/DVDS/CDS

Catfish (2010, 87 minutes). Reality thriller that reveals the realities of Internet intrigue.

Deep Web (2015, 90 minutes). The rise of the decentralized, encrypted web. Directed by

Alex Winter.

History of the Internet (1993, 6 minutes). This excerpt from the syndicated television show

Computer Chronicles discusses how the Internet started at ARPA; introduces one of the

first Internet search tools, Gopher; and displays the first Web browser, Mosaic. The

video is a step back into the 1990s and the clunky interfaces that today would be

intolerable. Hear how people talk about “Internet” (not the Internet) when discussing

The Internet’s Own Boy (2014, 105 minutes). Story of programming prodigy Aaron Swartz.

Life Hackers (2017, 55 minutes). Cybersecurity experts seek guidance from innovators

The Roots of “Anonymous,” the Infamous Hacking Community (September 3, 2014, 6:57

minutes). A PBS NewsHour segment on the origins of “Anonymous.” Watch online:

We Are Legion: The Story of Hacktivists (2012, 93 minutes). Explore the “hacktivist”

community.

We Steal Secrets (2013, 130 minutes.) A documentary about WikiLeaks directed by Alex

Gibney.

WEB SITES

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