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Chapter 6
Popular Radio and the Origins of Broadcasting
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Chapter Opener: The radio giant Clear Channel, which changed its name to iHeartMedia in 2014,
has been a poster child for both the success and excess of media consolidation as it has grown its
business across various media platforms. Its development raises questions about the future of
radio as a local medium and about the power of consumers.
I. The Early History of Radio
Radio traces its beginnings to the invention of the telegraph in the 1840s, but it did not
become a full-blown mass medium until the 1920s.
A. Inventors Paving the Way: Morse, Maxwell, and Hertz. In 1844, Samuel Morse
developed the telegraph, which used wires to transmit messages. In the mid-1860s,
James Maxwell theorized about the existence of electromagnetic waves, and in the
1880s, Heinrich Hertz proved that electricity emitted them, leading to the development
of wireless communication.
C. Early Regulation of Wireless/Radio. U.S. lawmakers recognized radio’s power and
defined it as a shared resource for the public good; they passed laws regulating how the
airwaves could be used.
1. Providing Public Safety. The Wireless Ship Act of 1910 mandated radio equipment
on all major U.S. vessels; the Radio Act of 1912 required stations to be licensed and
D. The Networks. Once the private sector got involved, radio took off as a business, with
radio networks allowing linked stations to reach more listeners than ever before.
1.
AT&T: Making a Power Grab. AT&T broke its agreements with RCA in 1922 in an
attempt to monopolize radio. The company claimed to have exclusive rights to sell
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E. The Radio Act of 1927. This legislation introduced the principle that licensees did not
own their channels but could only use them as long as they served the “public interest,
convenience, or necessity.”
F. The Golden Age of Radio. From the late 1920s to the 1940s, informative and
entertaining radio programs developed that shaped—and were shaped by—American
culture.
II. The Evolution of Radio
In the 1950s, TV snatched radio’s audiences, advertisers, and stars, displacing it in
American homes and forcing the industry to transform itself to survive.
A. Transistors: Making Radio Portable. The transistor enabled radios to shrink in size and
III. The Characteristics of Contemporary Radio
Radio today is very specialized, and listeners are loyal to favorite stations, formats, and
radio personalities rather than specific shows.
A. Format Specialization. Formats allow advertisers to target specific audiences at much
lower costs than those for television.
1. Country. The nation’s most popular format, country is traditionally the default
format for communities with only one radio station.
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B. Nonprofit Radio and NPR. Today, almost 1,000 NPR member stations operate,
providing an alternative to commercial broadcasting.
C.
Radio and Convergence. New technologies have taken radio back toward its roots when
nearly any individual or group with technical skill could start a station.
1. Internet Radio. The Internet has been used by existing stations to simulcast its
signal over the Web; other stations have been created exclusively for the Internet.
IV. The Economics of Commercial Radio
Radio today is one of the most-used mass media, making it desirable for advertisers and
content providers.
A. Selling Ads and Paying For Programming. About 10 percent of spending on media
advertising goes to radio stations. Local stations get most of their music free from the
V. Radio in a Democratic Society
Early debates over radio produced one of the most important ideas in communication policy
for any democracy: a requirement to operate in the public interest. Deregulation and
consolidation, however, raise the question of whether a variety of voices will be allowed to
speak.
LECTURE TOPICS
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a pro football game to show students how radio replaced newspapers as the main source of
breaking news.
Clips of Edward R. Murrow reporting live from the London Blitz show students that radio
reporters could be every bit as good as narrative journalists writing for magazines. Murrow’s
report from Buchenwald, although scratchy, is very moving and illustrates the importance of
journalism in preserving memories, especially in in the face of Holocaust deniers.
You could also lecture about the techniques of radio performing. In the early 1930s, some
actors were so scared of microphones that engineers devised lamp-shade covers to make them
appear more innocuous. Actors stood very close to each other around the microphone when
rehearsing and performing, so breath fresheners became standard fare in the studio. Historian
Robert L. Mott wrote that the breath freshener Sen-Sen was effective for disguising boozy
breath and became so popular that “most actors were afraid to use it for fear of being guilty
by association.” (For more information, see Mott, 1993, 3.)
Being a sound-effect artist was often nerve-racking and uncomfortable, with artists often
standing in two feet of water to get the kinds of splashing sounds the director wanted. The
biggest dread was dropping anything accidentally, having an equipment failure, or making
some other kind of noticeable mistake. One artist, desperate not to let a sledgehammer hit the
floor, put his foot in its path and broke his foot. What follows are some examples of how
sound-effect artists colored a radio show with sound:
• A bowl of cooked spaghetti squeezed rhythmically = a giant worm devouring people
in their sleep
• Glass wind chimes tinkling = sunlight
• Two moist rubber gloves twisted and stretched = a human body turned inside out
• A hopper that drained bird seed onto a piece of stretched waxed paper = rain on a
roof
• Flashlight bulbs dropped into a glass = ice cubes
• A cork dipped in turpentine and rubbed against a bottle = a squealing rat
Further listening: A good archive of OTR (old time radio) shows is available at OTR
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3. Draw comparisons between the development and growth of radio and the development and
growth of the Internet. Some of the inventors and innovators—Bill Gates and Matt Drudge in
LECTURE SPIN-OFFS
The Evolution of Radio
Clear channels were among the first AM channels established, and they have the most powerful
signals in radio (50 kilowatts), enabling them to broadcast over an enormously wide area, often
across much of North America. A person listening in Chicago can very well pick up a clear
channel from Atlanta, for instance. These AM stations have long been protected from interference
within their primary and secondary service areas. The best time to listen to a clear channel is at
In July 2000, WMAQ-AM signed off for the last time, a victim of the CBS and Viacom
merger and FCC regulations. It was replaced by an all-sports station called The Score. Before its
demise, however, WMAQ-AM had already gone through numerous format changes, from easy
listening to country and, finally, to all news.
Radio and Convergence
• Visit a digital radio Web site like Pandora.com or Live365.com (or have your students visit
these sites if they haven’t already) to demonstrate how users access digital radio. Pandora
allows users to create their own customized radio stations: Users enter songs they like, and
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• Discuss the emergence of podcasting. Explore the many uses of podcasts, and discuss how
they are changing radio.
• Commercial radio broadcasters once had automobile drivers’ ears all to themselves. Now,
however, Sirius/XM (satellite) radio has stolen listeners away with the lure of ad-free
stations. In addition, new vehicles are increasingly being equipped to play iPods and stream
The Economics of Commercial Radio
Many radio stations are now automated. With automated computer systems, deejays can record
their breaks between songs ahead of time and sound live when their shows play long after they’ve
left the station. Although this strategy means lower costs (a deejay might work only one hour to
Manipulating Playlists with Payola
Besides paying deejays to play specific songs, record companies have been guilty of the
following:
• Making arrangements with radio stations to purchase a number of advertisements so as to get
added to a station’s playlist (or to keep from getting dropped from it)
According to the Citizen’s Guide to the Airwaves:
1. The public airwaves are immensely valuable.
2. The government uses and licenses the spectrum with gross inefficiency.
3. The government is granting free, exclusive licenses to prime frequencies in what is perhaps
the largest corporate welfare giveaway in U.S. history.
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MEDIA LITERACY DISCUSSIONS AND EXERCISES
IN BRIEF: RADIO LISTENING HABITS
1. Think. Take two minutes to write down answers to the following questions about your radio
listening habits: How much radio do you listen to? What radio stations do you listen to?
When do you listen? How do you listen (using what device)? What attracts you to a particular
station?
IN BRIEF: CENSORSHIP AND TALK RADIO
Considering the growth of talk radio throughout the 1990s, discuss the following questions: Do
you listen to talk radio? Why? Should talk-radio hosts be able to say anything they want on the
radio? Is it important to air all potential issues over the airwaves, even if those issues might upset
some listeners? Are radio talk shows just silly sideshows of extreme views and shocking
IN DEPTH: FORMAT SPECIALIZATION
This exercise examines radio-group ownership and format specialization. Assign each radio
station in your market to individuals or small groups in the class. Listen to the same hour (e.g.,
4:00 to 5:00 P.M.) during the day for each station.
1. Description. Create a chart that breaks down the selected hour into a program log. Describe
what you hear, including music, news, deejay chatter, ads, community announcements,
2. Analysis. Compare program logs and other station information with classmates. What patterns
3. Interpretation. According to FCC rules, radio stations are trustees of public airwaves. Basing
your opinion on your listening experience, do you think these stations are doing a responsible
job of serving the public? If some radio stations in a single market have similar formats, is
that bad? Is there enough station differentiation in your market? What audience segments are
not targeted by the radio stations in your market? Why not?
4. Evaluation. Does the radio industry give listeners what they want, or does it give listeners
what the industry wants? Do you think radio companies are being responsible stewards of the
public airwaves? What are some changes you’d like to see in radio?
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5. Engagement. Listeners have the right to provide written comments about a station’s
programming to both radio stations and the FCC. Commercial stations are required to keep
letters and e-mails received from the public in their public file, which must be open for
IN DEPTH: TALK RADIO AND DEMOCRATIC CONVERSATION
Pre-Exercise Question: What topics do you normally associate with talk radio?
As noted in the case study “Host: The Origins of Talk Radio” in the main text (pp. 184–185),
talk-show hosts use the intimacy of radio perhaps better than anyone else on the air. For this
project, listen to two radio talk-show programs—one on National Public Radio and one on
commercial radio (such as one hosted by conservative Rush Limbaugh or liberal Alan Colmes, or
by a local host)—for thirty minutes to one hour each. Compare the two talk shows:
1. Description. Describe the range of topics and the typical callers/participants on the shows.
Also consider the pace of the show, the musical intros and outros, the tone and language style
of the host and contributors, and other elements.
2. Analysis. Compare the similarities and differences of the shows. How does each program
work to engage a listener? Are there patterns here?
3. Interpretation. Consider each show’s ultimate effect. Do the talk shows seem to be open to a
CLASSROOM MEDIA RESOURCES
VIDEOS/DVDS/CDS
The Agronomist (2003, 90 minutes). This documentary, directed by Jonathan Demme, examines
the life and assassination of Haitian radio journalist and human rights activist Jean
Dominique. Demme uses a combination of historical footage of Haiti’s troubled past and
interviews with Dominique and his wife, Michelle Monta, highlighting the unique role of
radio technology in remote areas of underdeveloped countries, as well as the personal danger
that crusading journalists face.
Empire of the Air: The Men Who Made Radio (1991, 120 minutes). A documentary by Ken Burns
Good Night and Good Luck (2005, 93 minutes) The story of Edward R. Murrow and his battle
with Joseph McCarthy.
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The History of Talk Radio (1996, 60 minutes). Documentary that provides an in-depth look at the
Radio Unnameable (2012, 87 minutes). This documentary explores the impact of legendary
personality Bob Fass, who revolutionized late-night FM radio.
Smithsonian Collection of Old Time Radio Mysteries (1999) by David Kogan. Radio Spirits;
Audio CD edition (September 1, 1998). Each radio broadcast has been digitally restored and
remastered from original recordings for superb sound quality. The sixty-page book is filled
with rare photographs and insightful commentary about the shows and performers. Available
at Amazon.com.
Stretch and Bobbito: Radio That Changed Lives (2015, 99 minutes). Documentary that explores
the social impact of what the Source Magazine in 1998 voted, “The Best Hip Hop Radio
WEB SITES
Supports seagoing radio operators.
The national association for amateur radio.
The online home of Billboard Magazine.
Provides free streaming online radio.
Supports digital radio business.
Offers examples of old-time radio during its developmental period.
Official web site of the NAB providing members advocacy, innovation, and education.
Media organization that syndicates almost 1,000 public radio stations nationwide.
Nielsen audio measures listeners across multiple device platforms.
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Serves more than 6,000 member radio stations and focuses on education, research, and
marketing programs.
Radio industry trade publication for radio management.
A search engine for radio station Web pages around the world.
FURTHER READING
Abel, Jessica, and Ira Glass. Out on the Wire: The Storytelling Secrets of the New Masters of
Radio. New York: Broadway Books, 2015.
Abel, Jessica, and Ira Glass. Radio: An Illustrated Guide. Chicago: WBEZ Alliance, 1999.
Alan, Carter. Radio Free Boston: The Rise and Fall of WBCN. Boston: Northeastern UP, 2013.
Douglas, Susan. Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899–1922. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP,
1987.
Douglas, Susan Jeanne. Listening In: Radio and the American Imagination. Minneapolis, MN: U
of Minnesota P, 2005.
Fornatale, Peter, and Joshua Mills. Radio in the Television Age. Woodstock, NY: Overlook Press,
1980.
Gonzalez, Juan. “Pacifica’s Christmas Coup.” In These Times, February 19, 2001, 12.
Halper, Donna L. Invisible Stars: a Social History of Women in American Broadcasting. Armonk,
NY: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 2014.
Head, Sydney, and Christopher Sterling. Broadcasting in America: A Survey of Television, Radio,
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