Unlock document.
This document is partially blurred.
Unlock all pages and 1 million more documents.
Get Access
Finally, open up the question for class discussion. If this question is a Media Literacy
exercise, start the five steps of the process. This strategy is an efficient use of time; it also
energizes the class and stimulates a free flow of ideas.
Research-Based Discussion
Some of the Media Literacy exercises ask students to conduct their own informal surveys,
gather material from their personal music collections, or do library research in preparation
for a class discussion. Students bring their findings or media materials to class and draw on
their own discoveries about their cultural environment. Out-of-class preparation can lead to
invigorating critical discussions.
Seminar-Style Presentations
Short (three-to five-minute) presentations by one or a few students on designated days can
often lead to effective and stimulating discussions. The students don’t necessarily need to
lead the class, but they should prepare for the class by developing a presentation on an
STRATEGIES FOR WRITING ASSIGNMENTS
Many writing assignments can be extremely valuable. Even though students may complain
about the workload, the more they write, the more they retain. What’s most important about
writing is that it aids students in developing the logic of a critical perspective.
Possible writing assignments can be divided into three categories:
1. Private writing for oneself, which allows a student to take the time to think about a
topic. These assignments could involve formulating answers to the Study Questions at
the end of every chapter.
2. Public writing for the class, which puts pressure on students to make sense in front of
7
________________________________
ASSIGNMENTS AND ACTIVITIES FROM SEASONED INSTRUCTORS
1. Activity Idea: What’s Your Guilty Media Pleasure?
What is your guilty pleasure? It could be anything from a TV show/genre to particular
books, magazines, Web sites, or music genres/groups. Is there anything you feel
embarrassed or ashamed about consuming? The more specific answer you give, the
better. Why do you feel guilty about it? Does this feeling run against the n orms of your
gender? Of your age? Of what youth culture currently determines as “cool”? Of what
society sees as worthwhile? (Note: You may want to ask students to read their guilty
pleasure out loud or to collect the papers and redistribute them f or others to read. From
there, you may want to break it down on the board.)
General Discussion Questions (use w ithin or separate f rom activities)
• Is there anything you can think of that is “universally trashy”? What about
universally in good taste?
• What does it take for something to move from “trashy” to accepted, popular, and
revered? Are there any good examples from the rise of popular music?
2. Profile Form
Last, First Name (print large and clear): ______________________________________
What name do you prefer to be called in class?
Place photocopy of your ID or a photo here
E-mail address:
Major:
Year in school:
Why are you taking this course?
8
________________________________________
What career plans are you considering?
What do you like to do when you aren’t in class or studying?
If you have a job, what is it, and where do you work?
Tell me something about yourself to help me remember you:
Tell me what mass media you enjoy, in this order:
Web sites:
Sound recordings:
Your signature:
—Adapted from a form developed by Phyllis V. Larsen, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
3. Oral History Project
Interview a p erson in his or her seventies, eighties, or nineties—someone who likes to
talk!—and ask questions about his or her mass media experiences in the twentieth
century (1930s on). Use the questions below as a starting point. If you don’t have a
family member or other acquaintance in this age bracket, there are retirement
communities and nursing homes in the area filled with people who would love to talk to
you. (You may want to give your students a list of local retirement communities and
nursing homes.)
a. Sound recording: What records did you listen to? Who was your favorite
recording artist?
9
b. Radio:
c. Television/Cable:
d. Movies:
What do you remember about your experiences with radio?
What kinds of programs did you listen to?
When were they on, and why did you like them?
Do you remember anything about the early radio
commercials?
Do you remember any public concern about radio
commercials?
What was it like when TV became available?
Where did you watch your first TV programs, and what
was the viewing experience like?
How much did your family’s first TV set cost, and what
factors figured into its purchase?
What was reception like?
What was a typical family viewing session like?
How did TV change your home life?
What were your first moviegoing experiences like, and how
were they different from today?
What were some of your favorite films growing up and
why?
10
Please organize your interview information according to the following guidelines, trying to
make your paper as readable and accessible as possible:
• Please type in 12-point single-spaced Times New Roman.
• Put your name, the participant’s name and age, and the relationship you have with your
interview participant at the top of the page.
• Group your interview participant’s answers under the assignment’s four categories:
sound recording, radio, TV/cable, and movies.
• Write at least a paragraph (single-spaced) for each category.
• Paraphrase your interview. If there’s a great quote, though—something that you think
4.
In-Class Presentation and Discussion Facilitation
With a partner, create an in-class presentation of material from an assigned chapter of
the Media Essentials textbook. You will be responsible for a ten- to fifteen-minute
presentation of the assigned material followed by a twenty-minute discussion/activity
with the class that you will lead. Presentations should (a) illustrate the main purpose and
5.
Collaborative Critical Media Inquiry
We will begin to develop your understanding of the critical process as a class and move
to applying it in a collaborative project with a classmate. Each collaborative team will
be pursuing a response to the same question: “How is sexual behavior portrayed in the
media?” You and your partner will select a single medium to explore, either one of
11
6. Applied Media Literacy Proposal and Paper
This assignment asks you to demonstrate an understanding of the critical process
presented in Media Essentials and to do so by means of developing a sophisticated
response t o an original question that you have a bout the m edia, their content, or their
role i n society.
Proposal
Provide an introduction to the topic, assuming an intelligent but uninitiated reader who
has not consumed the message(s) or is not as familiar with the given issue as you are.
Establish a rationale for the study of this particular medium, issue, or message (you may
Paper
This paper should build on your proposal and should account for each step in the critical
process (description, analysis, interpretation, evaluation, and engagement), which
means that you will create an original piece of criticism. If you consult outside scholarly
sources, be careful not to be unduly influenced by their readings of the media. This
USING MEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM
Media examples are crucial when teaching mass communication. We have provided
numerous video suggestions, lecture slides, and Web links (compiled over years of
teaching) for you to use in your classroom as well as a list of “tried and true” video
documentaries that we, and other instructors, swear by and urge you to acquire for your
12
occasions when a video does fill the entire class time, make sure students take notes or write
a short response for discussion in the following class.
In addition to using the resources provided here and purchased or library-loaned videos
or DVDs in class, you will also probably be recording television news shows,
documentaries, news reports, and commercials for classroom use. We have noticed, though,
that across the United States instructors and media lab directors are confused about the
legality of using programs and segments taped from television.
You might be surprised to learn that there is no national law on using self-videotaped
programs in class. Creators of videos have exclusive rights to their works under the
Copyright Act of 1976, but educators and critics have “fair use” rights to limited amounts of
13
14
Chapter 1
Mass Communication: A Critical Approach
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Chapter Opener: Hashtag activism—so called because of the use of the symbol # before a
word or phrase on Twitter that quickly communicates a larger idea or event—offers a
compelling illustration of just how powerful social media can be when it is channeled
toward a cause. Indeed, social media is everywhere, and it is here to stay. In this age of
smartphones, lightning-fast Internet speeds, and ever-changing technology, it’s hard to
imagine any successful effort to capture the public’s attention that wouldn’t make savvy use
of social media, be it a marketing campaign for consumer goods, a political campaign, or a
social movement.
!
I.
The Evolution of Mass Communication
Mass communication developed through five eras, all of which still operate to varying
degrees.
A. Oral and Written Eras. In most early societies, information and knowledge
circulated through oral (spoken) traditions; however, as alphabets and the written
word emerged, a manuscript (written) culture developed and overshadowed oral
communication.
B. The Print Era. Modern printing spurred significant changes.
1. Resistance to Authority. Writers used print to disseminate views that
challenged traditional authority.
C. The Electronic and Digital Eras. The rise of industry transformed everyday life,
setting the stage for the final two eras.
1. The Electronic Era. This era began with the telegraph in the 1840s but really
took off in the 1950s with the advent of television.
2. The Digital Era. New technologies have developed so quickly that journalists
and government have lost some control over information. Recently, we have
II. Mass Media and the Process of Communication
15
To understand how mass media shape the communication process, one must look at the
stages a medium goes through on its journey to becoming a mass medium.
A. The Evolution of a New Mass Medium. Three key stages contribute to most mass
media development: the development or novelty stage, the entrepreneurial stage,
III. How We Study the Media
Experts have used a variety of approaches to understand how the various media work
and what influence they have on our lives.
A.
The Linear Model. The linear model was an early attempt to explain how messages
were sent and received through mass communication channels. This model, which
IV. A Closer Look at the Cultural Model: Surveying the Cultural Landscape
This model studies the media through the lens of culture and presents ways to trace
changes in our cultural values as media change.
A. The “Culture as Skyscraper” Metaphor. Many envision American culture like the
floors of a building, ranging from low or popular culture to high culture.
B. The “Culture as Map” Metaphor. Culture—rather than being a vertically
organized structure—is an ongoing process that accommodates diverse tastes.
Cultural phenomena like media can take us to places that can be recognizable or
unfamiliar.
C. Tracing Changes in Values. Researchers have examined the ways our values have
changed along with media changes.
V. A Closer Look at the Social Scientific Model: Gathering Data
The social scientific model of media literacy differs in key ways from the cultural
model.
A.
Comparing Analyses of News Coverage. A study using the cultural approach
explored how media and consumers interpret cancer. A social science study on
VI. Critiquing Media
16
To acquire media literacy, we can read the findings of cultural and social science
researchers who have studied various aspects of the media. We can also learn to
critique media ourselves in a methodical way.
A.
Evaluating Cultural and Social Scientific Research. Examining the findings of
B.
Conducting Our Own Critiques. To conduct our own critiques, we need to
familiarize ourselves with the subject matter and transcend our own biases.
C.
Benefits of a Critical Perspective. Developing an informed critical perspective on
LECTURE TOPICS
1. Describe the five eras of media and communication: oral, written, print, electronic, and
digital. Explore their impact as well as their continued cross-reliance on one another.
Why has one form of communication not completely supplanted another?
2. Describe the impact of the printing press in terms of the Protestant Reformation and the
LECTURE SPIN-OFFS
How Essential Are Media in Understanding Our World?
We often learn about historical affairs through the stories that our family members tell,
through conversations and encounters with those who were there, and through narrative
accounts in textbooks. But for contemporary events, like the war on terror, most of us get
our information from various media reports. Almost everything we know about the war—
casualties, costs, negotiations, and strategy—is brought to us by the media. But some
content—such as graphic photographs—is censored. We are limited not only by what the
government allows the news media to report but also by what the media choose to tell and
show us.
In this case, how do we judge the job that our news media are doing, and how do we
17
News media are biased against historical overview, measured analysis, and complicated
ideas and experiences that don’t translate easily into daily stories that meet the space and
time demands of journalism. In addition, both we and the media generally prefer a story that
has a clear beginning, middle, and end.
War presents great challenges for the news media; in addition to the physical dangers,
the war in Iraq alone claimed the lives of more than a hundred reporters. A war is not a
singular event that just “happened yesterday”; instead, it is a complex narrative that seems
to have no end. Events that have no neat conclusion are especially difficult for
contemporary news media to transform into a dramatic, conventional story. As a result, they
often tell the story by what battle happened yesterday and how many people were killed or
Debating Media’s Role in Everyday Life
You might want to divert from the text a little bit and discuss the value and significance of
the First Amendment.
Discuss it in relation to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Explain
the idea behind the First Amendment: that information is good for democracy and that it’s
important to have as much information distributed as possible so that we all can make
informed decisions about whom to elect as our political leaders or about laws and
regulations that affect our lives. Discuss how the First Amendment protects the media in the
United States; no other business gets this special privilege within the Constitution.
Talk about the term public sphere; then discuss the relationship between good
18
The “Culture as Skyscraper” Metaphor
Allan Bloom in The Closing of the American Mind (1987) called for a return to “the great
tradition of philosophy and literature that made students aware of the order of nature and of
man’s place in it.” On the other hand, Lawrence Levine’s The Opening of the American
Mind (1996) described the canon of high culture as “a living thing,” or in other words, as a
map that is open to interpretation and that demands new critical criteria.
Think of these seeming “contradictions”:
•
Glamour magazine has recommended TV shows that include historical
documentaries, classical music, opera, and Shakespeare.
•
The Tate Museum in London has created programs like sleepovers especially for
children and has commissioned rock bands such as the Chemical Brothers and
Klaxons to write songs based on works in the gallery. The Tate has also linked art
to soccer in a way that makes art relevant to the younger generations.
Media critic Howard Hampton has written extensively about high versus low culture. In
Born in Flames: Termite Dreams, Dialectical Fairy Tales, and Pop Apocalypses (2007)—
his first collection of writings, written between 1987 and 2005—Hampton makes significant
Tracing Changes in Values
A comparison of modern and postmodern symbols:
Modern: The Sears (now Willis) Tower in Chicago, because it is sleek, unembellished, and
“wholly practical”
Postmodern: Philip Johnson’s AT&T Building (now the Sony Tower) in New York, a sleek
skyscraper topped with an eighteenth-century-style Chippendale pediment; Michael
Graves’s Portland Building in Oregon and his Humana Building in Louisville,
Kentucky, both of which feature a wild pastiche of decorative elements
19
MEDIA LITERACY DISCUSSIONS AND EXERCISES
IN BRIEF: CATEGORIZING CULTURE
Develop a model or metaphor for categorizing culture other than the skyscraper or map
models offered in the text. How would your model help us better understand the ways in
which culture works? Discuss your model.
IN BRIEF: SUSTAINING HIGH CULTURE
Pre-Exercise Questions: What is your image of a typical listener of classical music? Do you
listen to classical music on the radio, download or stream recordings, or attend classical
concerts? Why or why not? Where have you been exposed to classical music? Watching
cartoons? Watching figure-skating competitions?
Relating to the “Culture as Skyscraper” section, this critical process exercise examines
how classical music maintains a reputation as “elite music,” and it explores alternative ways
of interpreting the genre. For this exercise, students may need to listen to a radio station that
plays classical music, go to a classical music concert, or stream some classical music pieces.
1.
Description. Note the way that classical music is experienced in our culture. What are
the typical elements of a classical music radio format? How is the music introduced and
discussed? What tone of voice is used? How are the programs organized? What are the
major elements of a classical music concert? What are the rituals or formalities? What
do people wear? What is required of the audience, the conductor (if there is one), and
the musicians?
2.
Analysis. How does a classical music deejay compare with a deejay from another radio
format? What kind of prior knowledge is necessary to understand the deejay? How does
IN BRIEF: EVALUATING WAR NEWS
Pre-Exercise Question: How fair is press coverage of U.S. wars? Should American
journalists be objective? Can they be objective?
American news coverage of the Iraq War, the war in Afghanistan, and the war on terror
has been criticized by the left for being too patriotic and biased toward U.S. interests and by
the right for being antiwar and too critical of U.S. soldiers and motives. (See Lecture Spin-
Offs.) For this exercise, have students procure examples of your local paper’s coverage of
the Iraq War, the war in Afghanistan, or the war against ISIS and a corresponding period of
another U.S. war. Students will need to use a variety of media sources including digital
texts, microfilm, or hard copies when available.
20
For example, they should know whether the United States had a draft, whether any battles
were fought on American soil, how long the war lasted, and the reasons that the United
States took military action.
You’ll also need to lecture on critiques from both the left and the right on war coverage
or else have the students do some more research themselves. A variety of articles can be
found on blogs and in magazines like the Nation (left-wing) and the National Review (right-
wing). An excellent source on the evolution of war reporting is Phillip Knightley’s The First
Casualty (1975).
Have the students review articles for at least one week in each newspaper, taking care
that the weeks are of comparable periods in each war. In other words, you would not want to
compare March 2003, the beginning of the Iraq War, with May 1945, when Germany
surrendered in World War II. It is crucial that the students look at the actual articles rather
IN BRIEF: DEVELOPING A CRITICAL APPROACH
Your textbook suggests that developing a critical perspective involves five overlapping
stages:
1.
Description: Observe the phenomenon and make notes of those observations.
2.
Analysis: Map patterns that play out in the phenomenon.
3.
Interpretation: Answer the questions “So what?” or “What does that mean?”
4.
Evaluation: Arrive at a judgment based on the previous steps, not just personal taste.
5.
Engagement: Take some kind of action.
Let’s start with a nonmedia example. Imagine that you’ve never seen a deck of cards
before. As I flip over the cards, describe what messages are present. Are there patterns
appearing? If so, what do they mean? [Here an instructor can use a document camera to help
students see the cards.]
Because you know the nature of a deck of cards, it’s easy to recognize patterns and
21
IN DEPTH: TELEVISION—QUALITY OR TRASH?
In small groups or as a class, write the headings Quality and Trash on the board or on a
sheet of paper. As a group, agree on several TV shows that serve as examples of quality
programs and trashy programs. In another column, if necessary, place any programs that are
in dispute and that may divide group opinion. (Films, books, magazines, and advertisements
can be used here as well). Your column headings should look like this:
Quality Trash In Dispute
1.
Description. For each set of programs, gather information and evidence. On a separate
piece of paper, describe the programs by listing their narrative features: basic plots,
central conflicts or tensions, typical subject matter, major themes, main characters, and
how tensions are resolved.
2.
Analysis. Now return to your listing of programs. Under each category, name and
analyze the attributes that led your group to classify the programs as you did. Identify as
many characteristics as you can and then summarize which virtues are essential to a
quality show, which vices make a show trashy, and which elements make a particular
show hard to classify.
3.
Interpretation. Examine the patterns among the characteristics you have chosen and
interpret what they mean. Why did you pick the characteristics you did for each
4.
Evaluation. Evaluate the programs on your lists. Assess whether these shows are good
or bad. Should restrictions be placed on some programs even if it means testing the First
Amendment protections of the press and free speech?
Discuss the differences that were evident in your group between individual tastes and
the critical standards used to make judgments. Are more categories needed to evaluate
5.
Engagement. Pick a program from the “trash” category and organize a group to write a
letter or make a call to the producers of that program. Report your findings and offer
your critical suggestions to them, engaging them in a discussion of the program and its
contributions to consumer culture and to democracy.
22
CLASSROOM MEDIA RESOURCES
VIDEOS/DVDS/CDS
Bowling for Columbine (2002, 120 minutes). Following the massacre at Columbine High
School in Littleton, Colorado, documentary director Michael Moore explores some of
the possible causes of the tragedy and looks at the roots of America’s fascination with
guns and its deadly consequences. Winner of an Academy Award for best documentary
in 2003.
Game Over: Gender, Race & Violence in Video Games (2000, 43 minutes). This video
offers a dialogue about the complex and controversial topic of video-game violence, and
WEB SITES
An “independently funded critical media literacy education network that teaches
effective approaches to engage, challenge, and create media in ways that empower
individuals and communities.”
A comprehensive collection of media education and Internet literacy resources, in both
English and French, created by Mnet, a nonprofit Canadian media literacy organization.
“A national organization dedicated to media literacy.”
FURTHER READING
Bloom, Allan. The Closing of the American Mind: How Higher Education Has Failed
Democracy and Impoverished the Souls of Today’s Students. New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1987.
23
Carey, James W. Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society. Rev. ed. New
York: Routledge, 2009.
Corrigan, Timothy, and Patricia White. The Film Experience. 5th ed. New York:
Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2018.
DeGraff, John, et al. Affluenza: The All-Consuming Epidemic. San Francisco: Berrett-
Koehler, 2001.
Dewey, John. The Public and Its Problems. Columbus, OH: Swallow, 1927.
Douglas, Susan J. Where the Girls Are: Growing Up Female with the Mass Media. New
York: Times Books, 1994.
Eisenstein, Elizabeth. The Printing Press as an Agent of Social Change. 2 vols. Cambridge:
Cambridge UP, 1980.
Ewen, Stuart. All Consuming Images: The Politics of Style in Contemporary Culture. New
York: Basic, 1988.
Fiske, John. Understanding Popular Culture. 2nd ed. New York: Routledge, 2011.
Postman, Neil. Amusing Ourselves to Death: Public Discourse in the Age of Show Business.
20th anniversary ed. New York: Penguin, 2006.
Rushkoff, Douglas. Media Virus: Hidden Agendas in Popular Culture. New York:
Ballantine, 1994.
Schor, Juliet B. The Overspent American: Upscaling, Downshifting, and the New
Consumer. New York: Basic, 1998.
Schudson, Michael. “The New Validation of Popular Culture: Sense and Sentimentality in
Academia.” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 4 (March 1987): 51–68.
24
Twitchell, James B. Carnival Culture: The Trashing of Taste in America. New York:
Columbia UP, 1992.
“A Wild Ride into History” [special reports on Campaign 2000]. Columbia Journalism
Review, January/February 2001.
