Communications Chapter 1 Homework Conducting Our Own Critiques Conduct Our Own Critiques Need Familiarize Ourselves With

Finally, open up the question for class discussion. If this question is a Media Literacy

exercise, start the five steps of the process. This strategy is an efficient use of time; it also

energizes the class and stimulates a free flow of ideas.

Research–Based Discussion

Some of the Media Literacy exercises ask students to conduct their own informal surveys,

gather material from their personal music collections, or do library research in preparation

for a class discussion. Students bring their findings or media materials to class and draw on

their own discoveries about their cultural environment. Out–of–class preparation can lead to

invigorating critical discussions.

Seminar–Style Presentations

Short (three–to five–minute) presentations by one or a few students on designated days can

often lead to effective and stimulating discussions. The students don’t necessarily need to

lead the class, but they should prepare for the class by developing a presentation on an

STRATEGIES FOR WRITING ASSIGNMENTS

Many writing assignments can be extremely valuable. Even though students may complain

about the workload, the more they write, the more they retain. What’s most important about

writing is that it aids students in developing the logic of a critical perspective.

Possible writing assignments can be divided into three categories:

1. Private writing for oneself, which allows a student to take the time to think about a

topic. These assignments could involve formulating answers to the Study Questions at

the end of every chapter.

2. Public writing for the class, which puts pressure on students to make sense in front of

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ASSIGNMENTS AND ACTIVITIES FROM SEASONED INSTRUCTORS

1. Activity Idea: What’s Your Guilty Media Pleasure?

What is your guilty pleasure? It could be anything from a TV show/genre to particular

books, magazines, Web sites, or music genres/groups. Is there anything you feel

embarrassed or ashamed about consuming? The more specific answer you give, the

better. Why do you feel guilty about it? Does this feeling run against the n orms of your

gender? Of your age? Of what youth culture currently determines as “cool”? Of what

society sees as worthwhile? (Note: You may want to ask students to read their guilty

pleasure out loud or to collect the papers and redistribute them f or others to read. From

there, you may want to break it down on the board.)

General Discussion Questions (use w ithin or separate f rom activities) 

• Is there anything you can think of that is “universally trashy”? What about

universally in good taste?

• What does it take for something to move from “trashy” to accepted, popular, and

revered? Are there any good examples from the rise of popular music?

2.  Profile Form

Last, First Name (print large and clear): ______________________________________

What name do you prefer to be called in class?

Place photocopy of your ID or a photo here

E-mail address:

Major:

Year in school:

Why are you taking this course?

8

________________________________________

What career plans are you considering?

What do you like to do when you aren’t in class or studying?

If you have a job, what is it, and where do you work?

Tell me something about yourself to help me remember you:

Tell me what mass media you enjoy, in this order:

Web sites:

Sound recordings:

Your signature:

—Adapted from a form developed by Phyllis V. Larsen, University of Nebraska–Lincoln

3. Oral History Project

Interview a p erson in his or her seventies, eighties, or nineties—someone who likes to

talk!—and ask questions about his or her mass media experiences in the twentieth

century (1930s on). Use the questions below as a starting point. If you don’t have a

family member or other acquaintance in this age bracket, there are retirement

communities and nursing homes in the area filled with people who would love to talk to

you. (You may want to give your students a list of local retirement communities and

nursing homes.)

a. Sound recording: What records did you listen to? Who was your favorite

recording artist?

9

b. Radio:

c. Television/Cable:

d. Movies:

What do you remember about your experiences with radio?

What kinds of programs did you listen to?

When were they on, and why did you like them?

Do you remember anything about the early radio

commercials?

Do you remember any public concern about radio

commercials?

What was it like when TV became available?

Where did you watch your first TV programs, and what

was the viewing experience like?

How much did your family’s first TV set cost, and what

factors figured into its purchase?

What was reception like?

What was a typical family viewing session like?

How did TV change your home life?

What were your first moviegoing experiences like, and how

were they different from today?

What were some of your favorite films growing up and

why?

10 

Please organize your interview information according to the following guidelines, trying to

make your paper as readable and accessible as possible:

• Please type in 12–point single–spaced Times New Roman.

• Put your name, the participant’s name and age, and the relationship you have with your

interview participant at the top of the page.

• Group your interview participant’s answers under the assignment’s four categories:

sound recording, radio, TV/cable, and movies.

• Write at least a paragraph (single–spaced) for each category.

• Paraphrase your interview. If there’s a great quote, though—something that you think

4.

In–Class Presentation and Discussion Facilitation

With a partner, create an in–class presentation of material from an assigned chapter of

the Media Essentials textbook. You will be responsible for a ten– to fifteen–minute

presentation of the assigned material followed by a twenty–minute discussion/activity

with the class that you will lead. Presentations should (a) illustrate the main purpose and

5.

Collaborative Critical Media Inquiry

We will begin to develop your understanding of the critical process as a class and move

to applying it in a collaborative project with a classmate. Each collaborative team will

be pursuing a response to the same question: “How is sexual behavior portrayed in the

media?” You and your partner will select a single medium to explore, either one of

11 

6.  Applied Media Literacy Proposal and Paper

This assignment asks you to demonstrate an understanding of the critical process

presented in Media Essentials and to do so by means of developing a sophisticated

response t o an original question that you have a bout the m edia, their content, or their

role i n society.

Proposal

Provide an introduction to the topic, assuming an intelligent but uninitiated reader who

has not consumed the message(s) or is not as familiar with the given issue as you are.

Establish a rationale for the study of this particular medium, issue, or message (you may

Paper

This paper should build on your proposal and should account for each step in the critical

process (description, analysis, interpretation, evaluation, and engagement), which

means that you will create an original piece of criticism. If you consult outside scholarly

sources, be careful not to be unduly influenced by their readings of the media. This

USING MEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM

Media examples are crucial when teaching mass communication. We have provided

numerous video suggestions, lecture slides, and Web links (compiled over years of

teaching) for you to use in your classroom as well as a list of “tried and true” video

documentaries that we, and other instructors, swear by and urge you to acquire for your

12 

occasions when a video does fill the entire class time, make sure students take notes or write

a short response for discussion in the following class.

In addition to using the resources provided here and purchased or library–loaned videos

or DVDs in class, you will also probably be recording television news shows,

documentaries, news reports, and commercials for classroom use. We have noticed, though,

that across the United States instructors and media lab directors are confused about the

legality of using programs and segments taped from television.

You might be surprised to learn that there is no national law on using self–videotaped

programs in class. Creators of videos have exclusive rights to their works under the

Copyright Act of 1976, but educators and critics have “fair use” rights to limited amounts of

13 

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Chapter 1

Mass Communication: A Critical Approach

CHAPTER OUTLINE

Chapter Opener: Hashtag activism—so called because of the use of the symbol # before a

word or phrase on Twitter that quickly communicates a larger idea or event—offers a

compelling illustration of just how powerful social media can be when it is channeled

toward a cause. Indeed, social media is everywhere, and it is here to stay. In this age of

smartphones, lightning–fast Internet speeds, and ever–changing technology, it’s hard to

imagine any successful effort to capture the public’s attention that wouldn’t make savvy use

of social media, be it a marketing campaign for consumer goods, a political campaign, or a

social movement.

!

I.

The Evolution of Mass Communication

Mass communication developed through five eras, all of which still operate to varying

degrees.

A. Oral and Written Eras. In most early societies, information and knowledge

circulated through oral (spoken) traditions; however, as alphabets and the written

word emerged, a manuscript (written) culture developed and overshadowed oral

communication.

B. The Print Era. Modern printing spurred significant changes.

1. Resistance to Authority. Writers used print to disseminate views that

challenged traditional authority.

C. The Electronic and Digital Eras. The rise of industry transformed everyday life,

setting the stage for the final two eras.

1. The Electronic Era. This era began with the telegraph in the 1840s but really

took off in the 1950s with the advent of television.

2. The Digital Era. New technologies have developed so quickly that journalists

and government have lost some control over information. Recently, we have

II. Mass Media and the Process of Communication

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To understand how mass media shape the communication process, one must look at the

stages a medium goes through on its journey to becoming a mass medium.

A. The Evolution of a New Mass Medium. Three key stages contribute to most mass

media development: the development or novelty stage, the entrepreneurial stage,

III. How We Study the Media

Experts have used a variety of approaches to understand how the various media work

and what influence they have on our lives.

A.

The Linear Model. The linear model was an early attempt to explain how messages

were sent and received through mass communication channels. This model, which

IV. A Closer Look at the Cultural Model: Surveying the Cultural Landscape

This model studies the media through the lens of culture and presents ways to trace

changes in our cultural values as media change.

A. The “Culture as Skyscraper” Metaphor. Many envision American culture like the

floors of a building, ranging from low or popular culture to high culture.

B. The “Culture as Map” Metaphor. Culture—rather than being a vertically

organized structure—is an ongoing process that accommodates diverse tastes.

Cultural phenomena like media can take us to places that can be recognizable or

unfamiliar.

C. Tracing Changes in Values. Researchers have examined the ways our values have

changed along with media changes.

V. A Closer Look at the Social Scientific Model: Gathering Data

The social scientific model of media literacy differs in key ways from the cultural

model.

A.

Comparing Analyses of News Coverage. A study using the cultural approach

explored how media and consumers interpret cancer. A social science study on

VI. Critiquing Media

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To acquire media literacy, we can read the findings of cultural and social science

researchers who have studied various aspects of the media. We can also learn to

critique media ourselves in a methodical way.

A.

Evaluating Cultural and Social Scientific Research. Examining the findings of

B.

Conducting Our Own Critiques. To conduct our own critiques, we need to

familiarize ourselves with the subject matter and transcend our own biases.

C.

Benefits of a Critical Perspective. Developing an informed critical perspective on

LECTURE TOPICS

1. Describe the five eras of media and communication: oral, written, print, electronic, and

digital. Explore their impact as well as their continued cross–reliance on one another.

Why has one form of communication not completely supplanted another?

2. Describe the impact of the printing press in terms of the Protestant Reformation and the

LECTURE SPIN–OFFS

How Essential Are Media in Understanding Our World?

We often learn about historical affairs through the stories that our family members tell,

through conversations and encounters with those who were there, and through narrative

accounts in textbooks. But for contemporary events, like the war on terror, most of us get

our information from various media reports. Almost everything we know about the war—

casualties, costs, negotiations, and strategy—is brought to us by the media. But some

content—such as graphic photographs—is censored. We are limited not only by what the

government allows the news media to report but also by what the media choose to tell and

show us.

In this case, how do we judge the job that our news media are doing, and how do we

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News media are biased against historical overview, measured analysis, and complicated

ideas and experiences that don’t translate easily into daily stories that meet the space and

time demands of journalism. In addition, both we and the media generally prefer a story that

has a clear beginning, middle, and end.

War presents great challenges for the news media; in addition to the physical dangers,

the war in Iraq alone claimed the lives of more than a hundred reporters. A war is not a

singular event that just “happened yesterday”; instead, it is a complex narrative that seems

to have no end. Events that have no neat conclusion are especially difficult for

contemporary news media to transform into a dramatic, conventional story. As a result, they

often tell the story by what battle happened yesterday and how many people were killed or

Debating Media’s Role in Everyday Life

You might want to divert from the text a little bit and discuss the value and significance of

the First Amendment.

Discuss it in relation to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Explain

the idea behind the First Amendment: that information is good for democracy and that it’s

important to have as much information distributed as possible so that we all can make

informed decisions about whom to elect as our political leaders or about laws and

regulations that affect our lives. Discuss how the First Amendment protects the media in the

United States; no other business gets this special privilege within the Constitution.

Talk about the term public sphere; then discuss the relationship between good

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The “Culture as Skyscraper” Metaphor

Allan Bloom in The Closing of the American Mind (1987) called for a return to “the great

tradition of philosophy and literature that made students aware of the order of nature and of

man’s place in it.” On the other hand, Lawrence Levine’s The Opening of the American

Mind (1996) described the canon of high culture as “a living thing,” or in other words, as a

map that is open to interpretation and that demands new critical criteria.

Think of these seeming “contradictions”:

•

Glamour magazine has recommended TV shows that include historical

documentaries, classical music, opera, and Shakespeare.

•

The Tate Museum in London has created programs like sleepovers especially for

children and has commissioned rock bands such as the Chemical Brothers and

Klaxons to write songs based on works in the gallery. The Tate has also linked art

to soccer in a way that makes art relevant to the younger generations.

Media critic Howard Hampton has written extensively about high versus low culture. In

Born in Flames: Termite Dreams, Dialectical Fairy Tales, and Pop Apocalypses (2007)—

his first collection of writings, written between 1987 and 2005—Hampton makes significant

Tracing Changes in Values

A comparison of modern and postmodern symbols:

Modern: The Sears (now Willis) Tower in Chicago, because it is sleek, unembellished, and

“wholly practical”

Postmodern: Philip Johnson’s AT&T Building (now the Sony Tower) in New York, a sleek

skyscraper topped with an eighteenth–century–style Chippendale pediment; Michael

Graves’s Portland Building in Oregon and his Humana Building in Louisville,

Kentucky, both of which feature a wild pastiche of decorative elements

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MEDIA LITERACY DISCUSSIONS AND EXERCISES

IN BRIEF: CATEGORIZING CULTURE

Develop a model or metaphor for categorizing culture other than the skyscraper or map

models offered in the text. How would your model help us better understand the ways in

which culture works? Discuss your model.

IN BRIEF: SUSTAINING HIGH CULTURE

Pre–Exercise Questions: What is your image of a typical listener of classical music? Do you

listen to classical music on the radio, download or stream recordings, or attend classical

concerts? Why or why not? Where have you been exposed to classical music? Watching

cartoons? Watching figure–skating competitions?

Relating to the “Culture as Skyscraper” section, this critical process exercise examines

how classical music maintains a reputation as “elite music,” and it explores alternative ways

of interpreting the genre. For this exercise, students may need to listen to a radio station that

plays classical music, go to a classical music concert, or stream some classical music pieces.

1.

Description. Note the way that classical music is experienced in our culture. What are

the typical elements of a classical music radio format? How is the music introduced and

discussed? What tone of voice is used? How are the programs organized? What are the

major elements of a classical music concert? What are the rituals or formalities? What

do people wear? What is required of the audience, the conductor (if there is one), and

the musicians?

2.

Analysis. How does a classical music deejay compare with a deejay from another radio

format? What kind of prior knowledge is necessary to understand the deejay? How does

IN BRIEF: EVALUATING WAR NEWS

Pre–Exercise Question: How fair is press coverage of U.S. wars? Should American

journalists be objective? Can they be objective?

American news coverage of the Iraq War, the war in Afghanistan, and the war on terror

has been criticized by the left for being too patriotic and biased toward U.S. interests and by

the right for being antiwar and too critical of U.S. soldiers and motives. (See Lecture Spin–

Offs.) For this exercise, have students procure examples of your local paper’s coverage of

the Iraq War, the war in Afghanistan, or the war against ISIS and a corresponding period of

another U.S. war. Students will need to use a variety of media sources including digital

texts, microfilm, or hard copies when available.

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For example, they should know whether the United States had a draft, whether any battles

were fought on American soil, how long the war lasted, and the reasons that the United

States took military action.

You’ll also need to lecture on critiques from both the left and the right on war coverage

or else have the students do some more research themselves. A variety of articles can be

found on blogs and in magazines like the Nation (left–wing) and the National Review (right–

wing). An excellent source on the evolution of war reporting is Phillip Knightley’s The First

Casualty (1975).

Have the students review articles for at least one week in each newspaper, taking care

that the weeks are of comparable periods in each war. In other words, you would not want to

compare March 2003, the beginning of the Iraq War, with May 1945, when Germany

surrendered in World War II. It is crucial that the students look at the actual articles rather

IN BRIEF: DEVELOPING A CRITICAL APPROACH

Your textbook suggests that developing a critical perspective involves five overlapping

stages:

1.

Description: Observe the phenomenon and make notes of those observations.

2.

Analysis: Map patterns that play out in the phenomenon.

3.

Interpretation: Answer the questions “So what?” or “What does that mean?”

4.

Evaluation: Arrive at a judgment based on the previous steps, not just personal taste.

5.

Engagement: Take some kind of action.

Let’s start with a nonmedia example. Imagine that you’ve never seen a deck of cards

before. As I flip over the cards, describe what messages are present. Are there patterns

appearing? If so, what do they mean? [Here an instructor can use a document camera to help

students see the cards.]

Because you know the nature of a deck of cards, it’s easy to recognize patterns and

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IN DEPTH: TELEVISION—QUALITY OR TRASH?

In small groups or as a class, write the headings Quality and Trash on the board or on a

sheet of paper. As a group, agree on several TV shows that serve as examples of quality

programs and trashy programs. In another column, if necessary, place any programs that are

in dispute and that may divide group opinion. (Films, books, magazines, and advertisements

can be used here as well). Your column headings should look like this:

Quality Trash In Dispute

1.

Description. For each set of programs, gather information and evidence. On a separate

piece of paper, describe the programs by listing their narrative features: basic plots,

central conflicts or tensions, typical subject matter, major themes, main characters, and

how tensions are resolved.

2.

Analysis. Now return to your listing of programs. Under each category, name and

analyze the attributes that led your group to classify the programs as you did. Identify as

many characteristics as you can and then summarize which virtues are essential to a

quality show, which vices make a show trashy, and which elements make a particular

show hard to classify.

3.

Interpretation. Examine the patterns among the characteristics you have chosen and

interpret what they mean. Why did you pick the characteristics you did for each

4.

Evaluation. Evaluate the programs on your lists. Assess whether these shows are good

or bad. Should restrictions be placed on some programs even if it means testing the First

Amendment protections of the press and free speech?

Discuss the differences that were evident in your group between individual tastes and

the critical standards used to make judgments. Are more categories needed to evaluate

5.

Engagement. Pick a program from the “trash” category and organize a group to write a

letter or make a call to the producers of that program. Report your findings and offer

your critical suggestions to them, engaging them in a discussion of the program and its

contributions to consumer culture and to democracy.

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CLASSROOM MEDIA RESOURCES

VIDEOS/DVDS/CDS

Bowling for Columbine (2002, 120 minutes). Following the massacre at Columbine High

School in Littleton, Colorado, documentary director Michael Moore explores some of

the possible causes of the tragedy and looks at the roots of America’s fascination with

guns and its deadly consequences. Winner of an Academy Award for best documentary

in 2003.

Game Over: Gender, Race & Violence in Video Games (2000, 43 minutes). This video

offers a dialogue about the complex and controversial topic of video–game violence, and

WEB SITES

An “independently funded critical media literacy education network that teaches

effective approaches to engage, challenge, and create media in ways that empower

individuals and communities.”

A comprehensive collection of media education and Internet literacy resources, in both

English and French, created by Mnet, a nonprofit Canadian media literacy organization.

“A national organization dedicated to media literacy.”