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Chapter 3
Digital Gaming and the Media Playground
In this chapter, we will take a look at the evolving mass medium of digital gaming and:
• Examine the early history of electronic gaming, including its roots in penny arcades
• Trace the evolution of electronic gaming, from arcades and bars into living rooms and our hands
• Discuss gaming as a social medium that forms communities of play
• Analyze the economics of gaming, including the industry’s major players and various revenue streams
• Raise questions about the role of digital gaming in our democratic society
Preview Story: The major digital media companies—Apple, Google, Amazon, and Facebook—are now
all invested in digital games, especially those used on mobile phone, tablet, and social media platforms,
giving rise to tens of thousands of gaming apps. In 2014, Facebook purchased Oculus VR, a small
company that invented the Oculus Rift, a virtual reality headset. Such headsets can also be combined with
VR vests and gloves that offer haptic feedback, which offers that sensation of touch. In September, 2016,
the New York Times ran a banner headline: “Promise of Virtual Reality Remains Potent for Developers”
(September 29, 2016, p. B5).
I. The Development of Digital Gaming
A. Mechanical Gaming.
B. The First Video Games.
C. Arcades and Classic Games.
D. Consoles and Advancing Graphics.
E. Gaming on PCs.
II. The Internet Transforms Gaming
A. MMORPGs, Virtual Worlds, and Social Gaming.
B. Convergence: From Consoles to Mobile Gaming.
1. Consoles Become Entertainment Centers.
2. Portable Players and Mobile Gaming.
III. The Media Playground
A. Video Game Genres.
1. Action and Shooter Games.
2. Adventure Games.
3. Role-Playing Games.
4. Strategy and Simulation Games.
5. Casual Games.
6. Sports, Music, and Dance Games.
B. Communities of Play: Inside the Game.
C. Communities of Play: Outside the Game.
1. Collective Intelligence.
2. Game Sites.
3. Conventions.
IV. Trends and Issues in Digital Gaming
A. Electronic Gaming and Media Culture.
B. Electronic Gaming and Advertising.
C. Addiction and Other Concerns.
1. Addiction.
2. Violence and Misogyny.
D. Regulating Gaming.
E. The Future of Gaming and Interactive Environments.
V. The Business of Digital Gaming
A. The Ownership and Organization of Digital Gaming.
1. Console Makers.
2. Game Publishers.
B. The Structure of Digital Game Publishing.
1. Development.
2. Licensing.
3. Marketing.
C. Selling Digital Games.
1. Pay Models.
2. Video Game Stores.
3. Digital Distribution.
D. Alternative Voices.
VI. Digital Gaming, Free Speech, and Democracy
Case Study: Finding Positive Effects in Digital Games
Global Controversy: The Gender Problem in Digital Games
Media Literacy and the Critical Process: First-Person Shooter Games: Misogyny as Entertainment?
Digital Job Outlook: Media Professionals Speak about Jobs in the Video Game Industry
LECTURE IDEAS
I. The Development of Digital Gaming
• Describe the development of electronic games in comparison to other mass media.
II. The Internet Transforms Gaming
• Explain how electronic gaming converges with other mass media, and discuss how these
convergences can potentially transform businesses, institutions such as schools or government,
III. The Media Playground
• Some of your students might have played The Oregon Trail, an educational simulation game that
aims at reproducing the circumstances and drastic choices faced by white settlers traveling the two-
thousand-mile journey from Independence, Kansas, to the Willamette Valley in Oregon. Throughout
the game, players make choices to help their ox-driven wagon parties survive numerous potential
horrors, including measles, dysentery, typhoid, cholera, snakebites, drowning, physical injuries,
floods, mountains, heat, and cold, all the while maintaining provisions and predicting weather
conditions. First developed by educators in 1971, The Oregon Trail has been played by millions of
students.
IV. Trends and Issues in Digital Gaming
• The kinetic and tactile experience of motion-sensing gaming consoles (like the Nintendo Wii and the
Xbox Kinect) is popular with consumers and represents a revolution in video games. From the old
Atari joysticks to the two-handed modern video game controllers with close to a dozen buttons,
playing video games has been considered a mostly sedentary activity. But with a system that can
sense and track the movement of the players themselves, the Wii and Kinect require much more
movement to play the games. An example on the Wii is a version of a game of tennis in which a
figure on the screen (an avatar) swings its racket as the human player moves the Wii controller as if
it were the racket. Another game designed for the Kinect system allows players to imitate the dance
V. The Business of Digital Gaming
• Video games, despite their emphasis on play, are actually big business. The gaming industry is
astoundingly huge with annual revenues expected to top $100 billion by 2017.
• A 2015 study by the Pew Research Center found that about half of adults in the United States play
video games on a computer, TV, game console, or portable device like a cell phone. Fifty percent of
men and 48 percent of women play games. Among Americans between the ages of eighteen and
twenty-nine, more than three-fourths of men say they play video games, compared with 57 percent of
women. The full report is available at http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2015/12/PI_2015-12-
15_gaming-and-gamers_FINAL.pdf.
• In 2015, Activision Blizzard (publisher of Call of Duty, World of Warcraft, Destiny, Skylanders, and
Guitar Hero) bought King Digital Entertainment, maker of Candy Crush, for $5.9 billion. Activision
Blizzard has more than half a billion active monthly users.
• The market research company NPD Group has been tracking the business of video games since 1995.
Here is an excerpt of its findings from its “Gamer Segmentation 2016” report about different types of
• The Web site VGChartz tracks video game sales. The sales chart below gives an idea of the kinds of
numbers a popular video game can sell worldwide (in millions of units sold):
Game Platfor
m
Year Genre Publisher North
America
Global
1 Wii Sports Wii 2006 Sports Nintendo 41.49 82.74
2 Super Mario NES 1985 Platform Nintendo 29.08 40.24
Bros
3 Mario Kart Wii Wii 2008 Racing Nintendo 15.85 35.82
Source: http://www.vgchartz.com/gamedb
Global Controversy: The Gender Problem in Digital Games
• The controversy around #GamerGate highlights gender-related issues in gaming culture. The cancellation
of some of Anita Sarkeesian’s public appearances (because of threats of violence) has also sparked
debates about freedom of speech issues.
• A 2014 study by the Pew Research Center (http://www.pewinternet.org/2014/10/22/online-harassment/)
found that harassment “is a common part of online life that colors the experiences of many web users.
Fully 73% of adult Internet users have seen someone be harassed in some way online and 40% have
personally experienced it.” According to the study, “60% of internet users said they had witnessed
someone being called offensive names,” and “25% had seen someone being physically threatened.”
Some of the key findings of the study were that “young adults, those 18–29, are more likely than any
other demographic group to experience online harassment” (65 percent of young Internet users reported
being targets of harassment), and more than one-fourth of eighteen- to twenty-four-year-old women
experienced severe types of harassment (e.g., being stalked or sexually harassed online). Two-thirds of
online harassment occurs on social networking sites or apps. Interestingly, more than half of victims
ignored their most recent incident.
MEDIA LITERACY DISCUSSIONS AND EXERCISES
INAPPROPRIATE GAME CONTENT
This “think-pair-share” exercise focuses on gaming and its content.
1. Think. On your own, spend two to three minutes writing down what kind of content—if any—you
think should not be in electronic games. Be sure to consider misogyny and violence as well as ad
content within games.
2. Pair. Turn to your neighbor and compare notes. Are you concerned about certain kinds of gaming
content that children might see? Did either of you list excessive commercialism as a problem?
What are some valuable uses of electronic games?
3. Share. As a class, consider electronic gaming content. Should game content be legally censored?
Does it seem to be developing in a positive direction? If you could rethink the direction and uses of
electronic games, what would they be?
ELECTRONIC GAMING AND NEW TECHNOLOGIES
It should be easy to get students talking about games, considering their availability and popularity.
General Questions
• Have students discuss the ways new technologies have changed electronic gaming. Consider the
rapid advances in technology since the first gaming consoles were developed in the 1970s. Discuss
where new technology might lead next.
• Ask students if they use motion-sensing game consoles such as Xbox Kinect and Nintendo Wii. If
so, are they likely to use these games with friends or on their own?
• What are some of the possible uses of new gaming technologies outside the realm of games? How
could motion-sensing controllers and motion-detecting technology be used in education or in the
military, for example?
• If the option for gaming on mobile devices were suddenly eliminated from smartphones and tablets,
would students miss them? How much time do students spend with games in a given day? Do they
use smartphones and tablets, gaming systems, computers, or some combination of these devices?
Possible activity: Ask students how they obtain games. Do they visit brick-and-mortar stores such as
GameStop, or are they more likely to download games directly to their device? How does this direct
availability of games influence their purchasing habits?
Phones and portable electronic devices: Ask students if they play games on smartphones and
touchscreen tablets. What do they like and dislike about gaming on smartphones and tablets? How have
these devices changed their use of games?
TRACKING RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE DIGITAL GAMING INDUSTRY: A
SEMESTER-LONG CRITICAL PROCESS EXERCISE AND PAPER
In this exercise students discover the most recent developments in the industry, and they become familiar
with industry trade sources. The paper they produce is due in sections, which correspond with the steps in
the Critical Process.
1. Description. Read industry trade sources to get a sense of the main issues affecting the electronic
gaming industry. Look at the Web sites of industry trade associations and professional societies.
(Links to Web sites of some industry trade sources are given in the Classroom Media Sources below.)
Take notes on topics that have multiple stories or mentions in the current year. What issues or
developments in the industry have received a lot of recent attention, discussion, or commentary in
industry sources? (Focus only on information from the current year—and only from trade sources.)
Write a one-page synopsis of the information you found about current topics in the industry. Cite your
sources properly.
2. Analysis. Look for one development or pattern that has received significant attention on trade sites
and from trade journalists in the current year. Choose one specific trend, and write one or two pages
with details about the information you found about that trend. Continue to track news about your
topic as the semester progresses. Cite sources properly.
3. Interpretation. What does the trend mean for the state of the industry? Is it evolving? How? What
does it tell you about media in general at the current time? What might it say about our culture or our
society? Can your information help us interpret the role of the industry in our lives? Write up your
interpretation in a five-page paper. (The first page should be a synopsis of the trend, with proper
citations.) You might not have to provide information from your sources for the next four pages
CLASSROOM MEDIA RESOURCES
LAUNCHPAD FOR MEDIA & CULTURE: http://www.macmillanhighered.com/mediaculture11e
Anita Sarkeesian and GamerGate (2014, 31:44 minutes). Tropes vs. Women is a web series from Anita
Sarkeesian about sexism in video games, which became a target of angry fans.
Video Games at the Movies (2012, 0:58 minutes). In this clip from a film in the Resident Evil series,
heroine Alice fights off a horde of zombie attackers.
New Games Journalism On Screen (2014, 14:38 minutes). In this video from Gamasutra, Alex Wawro
interviews a creator about the indie game he’s Kickstarting.
Tablets, Technology, and the Classroom (2010, 3:07 minutes). Featuring Glenn Simpson, an English
teacher at Chico Green School, and his students, this video examines the benefits and drawbacks of
using the iPad and other handheld (and sometimes game-like) technology in the classroom.
VIDEOS/DVDS/CDS
Angry German Kid (2006, 4:19 minutes). A German boy named Leopold wants to play Unreal
Tournament but can’t (the computer is too slow), and he has a violent fit. This video, which became
an Internet meme, was believed to be true, but it was staged. It is still a good discussion starter about
violence and video games (and there are other similar examples online as well). Available for
download at http://www.complex.com/tech/2012/06/the-100-greatest-internet-memes-of-all-
time/angry-german-kid.
Game Over: Gender, Race, and Violence in Video Games (2000, 41 minutes). This video offers a
dialogue about the complex and controversial topic of video game violence, and it is designed to
encourage students to think critically about the video games they play. Distributed by the Media
Education Foundation, 800-897-0089; http://www.mediaed.org.
Leroy Jenkins (2006, 2:51 minutes). This famous YouTube clip illustrates World of Warcraft gameplay in
action: A guild is working to overthrow enemy forces, and Leroy Jenkins (one of the gamers) decides
to go in on his own. It’s funny (almost 34 million views) and a perfect introduction to this game.
Available for download at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LkCNJRfSZBU.
South Park Episode: Make Love, Not Warcraft (2008, 22 minutes). A hilarious critique of World of
Warcraft addiction. Available at http://www.southparkstudios.com/full-episodes/s10e08-make-love-
not-warcraft.
WEB SITES
Altered Gamer: http://www.alteredgamer.com
Common Sense Media: http://www.commonsensemedia.org
Digital Games Research Association: http://www.digra.org
Entertainment Software Association: http://theesa.com
Entertainment Software Rating Board: http://www.esrb.org
Fantasy Sports Trade Association: http://fsta.org
Feminist Frequency: https://feministfrequency.com
Foundations of Digital Games conference: http://www.foundationsofdigitalgames.org
Gamasutra: http://www.gamasutra.com
GameInformer: http://www.gameinformer.com
Games for Change: http://www.gamesforchange.org
Interactive Fiction Database: http://ifdb.tads.org
International Game Developers Association: https://www.igda.org
Leading Web sites for gaming mentioned in the text of Chapter 3 (with their corporate owners):
IGN (Ziff Davis, a publishing and digital media company): http://ign.com
GameSpot (CBS): http://gamespot.com
GameTrailers (MTV Networks/Viacom): http://gametrailers.com
Kotaku (Univision; previously Gawker): http://kotaku.com
FURTHER READING
Burnham, Van. Supercade: A Visual History of the Videogame Age 1971–1984. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 2001.
Hudson, Laura. “Promise of Virtual Reality Remains Potent for Developers.” New York Times. 29
September 2016, B5.
Jenkins, Henry. “Transmedia Storytelling 101.” Confessions of an Aca-Fan. March 22, 2007. Available at
http://www.henryjenkins.org/2007/03/transmedia_storytelling_101.html.
Kent, Stephen L. The Ultimate History of Video Games: From Pong to Pokemon—The Story Behind the
Craze That Touched Our Lives and Changed the World. New York: Three Rivers, 2001.
McGonigal, Jane. Reality Is Broken: Why Games Make Us Better and How They Can Change the World.
New York: Penguin, 2011.
Melissinos, Chris, Patrick O’Rourke, and Mike Mika. The Art of Video Games: From Pac-Man to Mass
Effect. New York: Welcome, 2012.
Phillips, Andrea. A Creator’s Guide to Transmedia Storytelling: How to Captivate and Engage Audiences
across Multiple Platforms. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012.
Quandt, Thorsten, and Sonja Kröger. Multiplayer: The Social Aspects of Digital Gaming. London:
Routledge, 2014.
