CHAPTER 5
Attitudes Based on High Effort
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter examines how consumers’ affective involvements are formed and changed when
their motivation, ability, and opportunity to engage in a behavior, make a decision, or process
a message are high. In these instances, consumers tend to expend a lot of effort informing
their attitudes. An attitude is a relatively global and enduring evaluation about an offering,
issue, activity, person, or event. Attitudes can be described in terms of their favorability,
accessibility, confidence, persistence, and resistance. When motivated ability and opportunity
(MAO) is high, consumers devote considerable effort to processing a message. The thoughts
and feelings that they have in response to this situation can affect their attitudes, through
either a cognitive or an affective route to persuasion.
From a cognitive perspective, attitudes can be based on cognitive responses, which are
defined as thoughts that individuals have in response to a stimulus. Three major types of
cognitive responses are counterarguments, support arguments, and source derogations.
Many counterarguments and source derogations would suggest that consumers’ attitudes
toward an offering are negative.
A second cognitively based perspective on attitudes is the expectancy-value approach. The
Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA), an extension of this model, is designed to predict not
only attitudes but also behavioral intentions. This model predicts that intentions are affected
by consumers’ attitudes toward the act and normative factors. The model also identifies how
attitudes and intentions can be influenced by four major strategies: (1) change beliefs (bi), (2)
change evaluations (ei), (3) add new beliefs (bi x ei), and (4) target normative beliefs (NB).
Also, under elaborative processing, messages can be effective if they (1) have a credible
source, (2) have a strong argument, (3) present positive and negative information (under
certain circumstances), or (4) involve direct comparisons (if not the market leader).
Attitudes are also formed from feelings or emotions such as joy and fear. In essence,
consumers can experience emotions either when they are affectively involved with a
communication or when the message involves an emotional appeal. In either case, the
consumer holistically processes the communication, and the feelings that result (either
positive or negative) can determine attitudes.
When attitudes are affectively based, sources that are likable or attractive can have a positive
impact on affective attitude change. Emotional appeals can affect elaborative processing if
they are relevant to the offering (the match-up hypothesis). Fear appeals are a specific type of
emotion-eliciting message. A consumer’s attitude toward the ad (Aad) can play a role in the
attitude change process if the ad is informative or associated with positive feelings. The Aad
can then rub off on brand beliefs and attitudes.
Finally, attitudes will better predict a consumer’s behavior when (1) involvement is high, (2)
knowledge is high, (3) consumers analyze their brand preferences, (4) attitudes are
accessible, (5) attitudes are held with confidence, (6) they are specific, (7) the time between
exposure to product advertising and product trial is short, (8) there are no situational factors
present, (9) normative factors are not in operation, and (10) we are dealing with certain
personality types.
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
1. Define attitudes and explain how they are formed and changed.
2. Discuss how marketers can apply various cognitive models to understand
consumers’ attitudes based on high-effort thought processes.
3. Describe some of the methods for using the communication source and the
message to favorably influence cognitively-based attitudes in high-effort situations.
4. Identify the emotional foundations of attitudes when consumers’ processing effort
is high.
5. Explain how and why a company might try to change consumers’ attitudes by
influencing their feelings.
6. Outline the three main factors that lead to a positive overall consumer attitude
toward an advertisement.
7. Discuss the various elements that can affect whether a consumer’s attitudes will
influence his or her behavior.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. What Are Attitudes?
A. The Importance of Attitudes (Introduction with luxury watch example):
: overall evaluation that expresses how much we like or dislike an object, issue,
person, or action.
i
Attitudes are learned, and they tend to persist over time. Our
attitudes also reflect our overall evaluation of something based on the set of
associations linked to it.
1. Attitudes guide thoughts (cognitive function).
2. Attitudes influence feelings (affective function).
3. Attitudes influence behavior (connative function).
B. The Characteristics of Attitudes
1. Favorability—how much we like or dislike an attitude object
2. Accessibility—how easily the attitude is retrieved from memory
3. Confidence—how strongly we hold our beliefs
4. Persistence—how long our attitudes stay with us over time
5. Resistance—how difficult it is to change attitudes we hold
6. Ambivalence—when we have strong negative evaluations about some aspects
of the attitude object and strong positive evaluations about other aspects of it.
II. Forming and Changing Attitudes
A. The Foundation of Attitudes
1. Cognitive bases—attitudes based on thoughts
a) Information from external sources—e.g., ads
b) Information from internal sources—memory
2. Affective bases—attitudes based on emotions
a) Direct experience
b) Vicarious experience
B. The Role of Effort in Attitude Formation and Change
1. Elaboration is the extensiveness of thinking that a consumer puts forth
2. When MAO is high: central-route processing
a) Attitude development is based either on careful, effortful analysis, or a
high level of elaboration.
3. When MAO is low: peripheral-route processing
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort 3
a) Attitude development is based on tangential or superficial analysis, or a
low level of elaboration.
III. The Cognitive Foundations of Attitudes
A. Direct or Imagined Experience
1. Consumers use direct experience and imagery to form attitudes
B. Reasoning by Analogy or Category
1. Consumers form attitudes by considering how similar an object is to other
similarly categorized objects.
C. Values-Driven Attitudes
1. Attitudes are generated or shaped based on an individual’s values
D. Social Identity-Based Attitude Generation
1. How consumers view their social identities can play a role in attitude formation
E. Analytical Processes of Attitude Formation
1. Cognitive Response Models
a) Cognitive responses are thoughts a consumer has when exposed to a
communication.
b) Categories of cognitive responses
(1) Counterarguments (CAs)—thoughts that express disagreement with
the message
(2) Support arguments (SAs)—thoughts that express agreement with
the message
(3) Source derogations (SDs)—thoughts that discount or attack the
source of the message
a) Marketing Implications
(1) Consumers will generate more CAs and fewer SAs when message
content is different from existing beliefs, or belief discrepancy
(2) Test market communications to assess the extent to which they
generate CAs or SDs; then improve communications to overcome
these barriers.
2. Expectancy-Value Models
a) Attitudes based on two factors
(1) Beliefs about an object or action
(2) Evaluation of the object or action
b) Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA) Model
(2) Model includes normative influences—how other people in the social
environment can influence our behavior
(3) TORA model includes belief about consequences (bi) or an action
and the evaluation of those consequences (ei)
(4) Model predicts that behavioral intentions (BI) are determined by the
combination of a person’s attitudes (Aact) and the subjective norms
that operate in the situation (SN).
c) Theory of Planned Behavior
(1) Predicts behavior over which consumers have incomplete control by
examining perceived behavioral control
d) Marketing Implications
(1) Change beliefs
(3) Add a new belief
(4) Encourage attitude formation based on imagined experience
(5) Target normative beliefs
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort
IV. How Cognitively Based Attitudes Are Influenced
A. Communication Source
1. Source Credibility
a) Trustworthiness, expertise, and status influence credibility.
b) Credible sources influence consumer acceptance when prior attitudes are
negative, when the message is very inconsistent with our prior beliefs,
and when the message is complex.
c) Credible sources have less impact when attitudes are confidently held,
when consumers are more knowledgeable, and when the source
endorses a large number of products.
d) Marketing Implications
(1) Celebrities thought to be honest, as well as ordinary people, can be
credible spokespersons.
(2) Celebrities who are thought to be experts in their fields can be
credible sources, but may become liabilities if they get in trouble.
(3) A low-credibility source can be effective if he/she argues against
his/her own self interest.
2. Company Reputation
a) Companies with a reputation for quality products, dealing fairly with
consumers, and being trustworthy, are more likely to be believed.
b) Marketing Implications
(1) Many companies devote considerable time and money to developing
a positive corporate image.
B. The Message
1. Argument Quality
a) Strong arguments presenting the merits of the offering in a convincing
manner are important.
b) Marketing Implications.
(1) Message strength should match the amount of effort consumers
want to use to process it.
2. One- Versus Two-Sided Messages
a) Presenting both positive and negative information can be effective either
when consumers are initially opposed to the offering or when they will be
exposed to strong competitive counter messages.
b) Marketing Implications.
(1) Two-sided messages should occur only if the negative message is
about an unimportant attribute.
3. Comparative Messages
a) Showing relative advantages over competitors can be useful.
b) Indirect comparative ads referring to unnamed competitors and are
effective in increasing consumers’ perceptions of a moderate-share
brand, compared to other moderate-share brands.
c) Direct comparative advertising explicitly names a competitor or set of
competitors and can be effective for low-share brands that are attempting
to take sales away from high-share brands and when consumer MAO is
high.
d) Marketing Implications.
(1) All information in a comparative ad must be factual and verifiable to
avoid legal action from competitors.
(2) Avoid the sleeper effect, where consumers forget source but recall
message
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort 5
V. The Affective (Emotional) Foundations of Attitudes
A. Emotional Processing
1. Affective involvement leads to more holistic processing of messages including
the activation of images or feelings, which in turn influence attitudes.
2. Affective responses are the images or feelings generated as a result of
emotional involvement with a message.
3. Cross-cultural differences influence the effectiveness of emotional appeals.
4. Negative emotions can influence attitude change when feelings encourage
action, as when empathy for another is generated.
5. Marketing Implications.
a) Marketers can try to influence emotions to affect consumer attitudes
through marketing communications.
VI. How Affectively Based Attitudes Are Influenced
A. The Source
1. Attractiveness of the source—those who are physically appealing, similar to us,
likable, or familiar—can influence attitudes.
2. When MAO is high, attractive sources can evoke favorable attitudes if they are
appropriate for or “match up” with the category—called the match-up
hypothesis.
B. The Message
1. Emotional Appeals and Emotional Contagion
a) Emotional appeals are more effective when the message shows how a
given offering, action, or behavior has personally relevant consequences
for the consumer.
b) Emotional appeals may limit the amount of product-related information
consumers can process.
c) Emotional appeals may be more effective when the arousal of emotion is
related to the consumption or use of the product, as when hedonic or
symbolic motivations are important.
d) Marketing Implications.
(1) Marketers may use music, emotional scenes, visuals, sex and
attractive sources to elicit an affective response from consumers.
2. Fear Appeals
a) Fear appeals attempt to elicit fear or anxiety by stressing negative
consequences of either engaging in or not engaging in specific behaviors.
b) Studies of fear appeals found them to be ineffective as consumers’
perceptual defenses block the message.
c) However, fear appeals that evoke guilt, regret or challenge can be
effective because of feelings of self-accountability.
d) Terror Management Theory (TMT)
(1) Consumers develop a worldview of values and beliefs to cope with
the inevitability of death.
(2) A high-fear appeal using a fatal threat may thus be ineffective.
e) Marketing Implications. Fear appeals are most effective if:
(1) The appeal suggests an immediate action that will reduce the fear.
(2) The level of fear is moderate.
(3) At higher levels of involvement, the fear appeals are more effective.
(4) Other factors such as personality, product usage, and
socioeconomic status will have an impact on the effectiveness of
fear appeals.
VII. Attitude Toward the Ad
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort
A. Attitude toward the ad can influence brand attitudes and behavior.
1. Ads that are more informative are usually better liked, generating positive
responses and positively influencing brand attitudes.
a) Called the utilitarian (or functional) dimension.
2. Ads that create positive feelings are better liked, can elicit positive experiences
from memory, and can transfer positive attitude over to the brand.
a) The creation of positive feelings or emotions is called the hedonic
dimension.
3. Ads that are more interesting generate curiosity and get attention, which can
lead to high elaboration generating positive attitude toward the ad.
VIII. When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?
A. Many factors affect whether one’s attitudes will affect one’s behavior.
1. Higher level of involvement/elaboration leads to more strongly held beliefs that
are more predictive of a consumer’s future behavior.
2. Higher levels of knowledge and experience are associated with more strongly
held attitudes that are more predictive of a consumer’s future behavior.
3. Research shows that asking consumers to analyze their reasons for brand
preferences increases the link between attitude and behavior.
4. More accessible attitudes that are “top of mind” are more strongly related to
behavior.
5. Attitudes that are more confidently held are more predictive of behavior.
6. Attitudes that are more specific to a behavior are more predictive of that
behavior.
7. The shorter the time between exposure to product advertising and product trial,
the more likely it is that attitudes will predict behavior.
8. The more emotionally attached consumers are to a brand, the more likely their
attitudes will predict their purchase behavior. They will also develop
counterarguments to negative information about the brand.
9. Intervening situational factors can prevent a behavior from being performed
and thus weaken the attitude-behavior relationship.
10. Normative factors and motivation to comply with them can affect the attitude-
behavior relationship.
11. Personality variables can influence attitude-behavior relationships.
a) People who think more (high need for cognition) evidence stronger
attitude-behavior relationships.
b) People guided by their own internal dispositions (low self-monitors) are
more likely to display consistent attitude-behavior relationships than those
who frequently adjust to their situation (high self-monitors).
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION
Possible answers are as follows.
1. What are attitudes, and what three functions do they serve.
2. How do expectancy-value models seek to explain attitude formation?
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort 7
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
7
Expectancy-value models attempt to explain consumers’ attitude formation as function of
the beliefs consumers have about an objective and the evaluations they have of those
beliefs. For example, consumer positive attitudes can be formed if they believe a brand
is reliable and high quality, and they evaluate reliability and quality as good traits for the
product.
3. What role does credibility play in affecting consumer attitudes based on cognitions?
4. What are the advantages and disadvantages of offering a two-sided message about a
product?
Advantages of a two-sided message include making the message more credible and
5. What is emotional contagion, and why do marketers apply it?
6. Contrast emotional and fear appeals. Why is each effective? Which do you consider
most compelling for products in which you are interested?
Emotional appeals can be effective in forming positive associations within a consumer’s
7. What three factors may lead to a positive attitude toward the ad (Aad)when consumers
devote a lot of effort to processing a message? How can marketers apply these factors
when designing advertising messages?
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort
SUGGESTED EXERCISES
1. Collect three pharmaceutical advertisements as these generate elaborative processing.
Perform a detailed analysis of these ads in terms of the following: (a) What types of
cognitive responses might consumers have when seeing/reading these ads? (Be sure to
identify counterarguments, support arguments, and source derogations.) Based on
these responses, how effective do you think each ad will be in changing attitudes? (b)
Applying the TORA model, what types of attitude-change strategies are these ads using?
(c) What kinds of affective responses (feelings or emotions) might occur? How would
these responses affect the attitude change process?
2. Find three ads that you think will generate a fair number of cognitive responses from
consumers. Show these ads to a sample of 15 consumers and ask them to think out loud
about their reactions while reading the ads. Record these responses either on tape or by
hand. Then classify the responses into the categories of counterarguments, source
derogations, support arguments, and affective responses. Use this information to answer
the following questions: (a) What are the major strengths of each ad? (b) What are the
major weaknesses of each ad? (c) How could each ad be improved?
3. Find ten social media ads (on facebook, etc.) that you think will elicit elaborative
processing. Analyze these ads for the types of source and message factors discussed in
the chapter. Based on this analysis, answer the following questions: (a) Which types of
source and message factors are most frequently used? (b) Which ads do you think are
most effective, and why? (c) Which ads do you think are least effective, and why?
4. Interview three people who engage in personal selling for a business. Develop a short
questionnaire that will identify the types of strategies they use to persuade consumers to
buy particular products. First, ask some open-ended questions about how the
salespeople try to influence consumers. Then ask some specific questions regarding the
source and message factors discussed in the chapter. Be sure to ask how often the
salespeople use each technique and how effective they think the techniques are.
Summarize this information and answer the following questions: (a) Which types of
persuasion techniques are most likely to be used in a personal selling situation? (b)
Which message factors are most effective and why? (c) Which message factors are least
effective and why?
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort 9
ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS WITH SAMPLE ANSWERS
These discussion questions can be used as in-class activities or as thought questions that the
students consider while reading the chapter or to test their understanding of the material after
the reading and lecture are complete.
1. Explain central-route processing and discuss ways marketers can influence high-effort
consumer attitudes.
When consumers’ motivation, ability, and opportunity (MAO) are high, they are more
2. Explain how marketing communications can affect consumers’ cognitively based
attitudes.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
1. In your group, develop a definition of attitudes and explain why they are important to
marketers.
2. Based on your definition of attitudes, describe how they are formed and give an example
of this process in a marketing context.
3. Describe the factors that can influence whether attitudes are more likely to predict
behavior. Explain the marketing implications of each factor.
4. Describe the expectancy-value model. Explain how attitudes are changed under this
model. Develop three marketing examples to show how this model might work for
consumers.
5. Discuss source credibility and its dimensions. Provide an example of each type of source
credibility. Explain how source credibility can influence attitudes and why this can be
important to marketing.
6. Develop an explanation of a “strong argument” and give examples of how strong
arguments can affect consumer attitudes.
7. Develop a set of guidelines that tell marketers when it is useful to put negative
information into their messages. Explain what types of effects these messages can have
on consumers.
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort 11
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES AND CLASSROOM EXAMPLES
Students who learn more readily through visual and tactile stimuli will benefit from the
introduction of physical examples into the classroom.
1. “Dueling Ads”
Divide the class into groups of six to eight students, and then divide each of these groups
in half. Tell the two smaller groups (of three to four students apiece) that they must each
develop a print ad designed to influence consumer attitudes toward the same
controversial issue, but that they must take different strategic/tactical approaches (i.e.,
cognitive versus emotional). Examples of controversial issues include organ donation,
cremation, physician-assisted suicide, bilingual education in public schools, and gun
control. When all the ads have been completed, ask the students which ad from each
pair they believe works better and why, and discuss the challenges involved in the
assignment.
CLASSROOM GROUP ACTIVITY:ADVERTISING INFLUENCES ON
AFFECT, COGNITION, AND CONNATION: 20 MINUTES
I. Start Up
A. Purpose of the activity
1. This activity will give students an opportunity to apply the concepts of attitude
formation and change in a brief classroom exercise.
B. What the instructor will do
1. The instructor will divide people into small groups, provide them an
advertisement for consideration, and be available to coach and help the groups
as needed.
2. Advertisements should be collected in advance. Select ads that provide an
opportunity for students to uncover components designed to influence affect,
cognition, and connation through efforts to change beliefs, evaluations, or
feelings. Also, look for ads containing elements to which consumers might form
support arguments, counterarguments, or source derogations.
3. Optionally, if resources permit, create transparencies of each ad so small
groups can present their ideas to the large group when they have finished their
analyses.
C. What the participants will do
1. The participants will work in small groups to study advertisements to uncover
tactics related to concepts presented in the chapter. After a period of small-
group discussion, they will make reports to the large group.
D. Rules for this experience
1. Groups are to work separately from each other. Individuals should rely on their
knowledge from the book and may refer to their notes and the book as
necessary.
II. Experience
A. Group up.
1. Have students form groups of no more than five. This exercise will work in
groups of any size; however, room restrictions that do not allow for moving
furniture may make group work more difficult.
This experiential exercise was contributed by Professor Sheri Bridges of Wake Forest University.
Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
12
1. Each group should be assigned a single advertisement on which to focus.
a) Consider using local brands, including both products and services.
b) Consider using brands that are not the leaders in their categories (i.e., not
Coca-Cola or McDonald’s).
c) Consider bringing samples of the brands to the class for students to study
and review in their groups (e.g., box of crackers, candy bar, cola can).
C. Specific actions for groups
1. The groups are responsible for analyzing the advertisement to uncover efforts
aimed at forming or changing attitudes in consumers.
2. Questions to be answered by small groups
a) In what ways is the ad designed to form or change attitudes?
b) How does the ad aim to change affect, cognition, or connation?
c) What types of support arguments, counterarguments, and source
derogations might consumers form in response to the ad?
d) To what extent does, the ad attempt to affect beliefs and evaluations
about consequences related to a particular behavior. Does it target
normative beliefs? Does it seek to add new beliefs?
3. Large-group discussions
a) Ask for a group to volunteer to discuss their analysis. Have them share
the ad they are analyzing and then discuss their insights.
b) If there are many groups, share the discussion among all groups, though
not all groups may answer all of the questions.
III. Debrief and Unveil Concepts
A. Discuss the activity itself.
1. The purpose of this discussion is to allow students to express what they felt
about the experience itself.
2. Ask students to describe their experiences of “doing” the activity.
a) Likes and dislikes about what just happened
b) How they felt during the experience
c) What is realistic, unrealistic about the exercise?
d) What will be different when they do this for their own brand?
2. Ask students to describe the important points the experience teaches.
a) The role of advertising in the process of attitude change and formation
b) The role of affect and cognition in the attitude formation process
c) The behavior of consumers who may create support arguments, counter-
arguments, and source derogations when processing advertisements
3. Use the chalkboard to record student responses.
a) Write down their ideas as they are presented.
b) Concentrate on the principles being discussed rather than the examples
being used.
c) Help them to see the interrelationships between their responses.
IV. Execute
A. Apply what has been learned.
1. Lead a discussion on how the concepts can be applied in organizations.
a) What barriers may be faced in applying the concepts from the exercise?
b) What can be done to help others understand the concepts when you use
them at work?
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort 13
B. Transfer and use the knowledge.
1. Encourage students to make a record in their notes about how they will use the
ideas in the workplace.
2. Even if they do not have a specific job, how will they remember to use what
they have learned?
CLASSROOM GROUP ACTIVITY: BRAND/PARENT COMPANY QUIZ:
15 MINUTES
I. Start Up
A. Purpose of the activity
1. This activity will give students an opportunity to illustrate how incorrect beliefs
and attitudes have been acquired over time.
B. What the instructor will do
1. The instructor will hand out the following exercise to everyone in class (see
actual exercise at the end of this outline).
2. After students finish, the instructor will go over the correct responses, most of
which will come as a great surprise to the students.
C. What the participants will do
1. Identify each of the parent companies for the ten different products.
2. Go back and rank the confidence of their responses.
D. Recap
1. Exercise should illustrate how we all have a number of incorrect beliefs that
affect our attitudes about the products many use on a regular basis.
II. Brand/Parent Company Quiz (Next Page)
A. Answers:
1. a (9Lives – Heinz)
2. c (Prego – Campbell’s)
3. c (Aquafresh – GlaxoSmithKline)
4. a (Gatorade – Pepsi)
5. a (Champion – Sara Lee)
7. c (Country Time Lemonade – Kraft)
8. b (Pine Sol – Clorox)
9. b (Hidden Valley Ranch – Clorox; yes, this is correct)
10. a (Q-Tips – Chesebrough Ponds; yes, this too is correct, it is not J & J; check
the box!)
Chapter 5: Attitudes Based on High Consumer Effort
PARENT COMPANY QUIZ
For each of the following products, select the parent company. After you have finished all ten,
using each of the numbers 1–10 ONLY ONCE, go back and rank each of the answers based
on how sure you are that they are correct. The product that you are most certain of the parent
company, rank it as 10. The product that you are least certain should be ranked as a one.
1. 9 Lives Cat Food/Kibbles & Bits
a. Heinz Corp.
b. Purina
c. Kal Kan
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
2. Prego Spaghetti Sauce
a. Ragu International
b. Kraft Foods
c. Campbell’s
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
3. Aquafresh Toothpaste
a. Lever Bros.
b. Colgate-Palmolive
c. GlaxoSmithKline
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
4. Gatorade
a. Pepsi
b. Coca-Cola
c. Kraft Foods
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
5. Champion Athletic Wear
a. Sara Lee
b. Russell
c. Adidas
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
6. Dr. Pepper
a. Coca-Cola
b. Cadbury Schweppes
c. RC Cola
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
7. Country Time Lemonade
a. General Foods International
b. Kraft Foods
c. Welch’s
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
8. Pine-Sol
a. Lever Bros.
b. Clorox
c. Dial
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
9. Hidden Valley Ranch Dressing
a. Paul Newman
b. Clorox
c. Kraft Foods
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
10. Q-Tips
a. Chesebrough-Ponds
b. Johnson & Johnson
c. Colgate-Palmolive
d. Procter & Gamble RANK:
Total Score (Possible 55): ______.