Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
CHAPTER 3
FROM EXPOSURE TO COMPREHENSION
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter considers the topics of exposure, attention, and perception as precursors
to message comprehension. It notes that in order for a marketing stimulus to have an
impact, consumers must be exposed to it, allocate some attention to it, and perceive
it. Perception and attention are mutually reinforcing processes. A basic level of
attention is needed to perceive a stimulus. Once perceived, further attention-based
resources can be used to process stimuli at higher levels of processing. Key topics
are:
Exposure
• Selective exposure
• Gaining exposure
Attention
• Focal, nonfocal, preattentive
• Habituation
Perception
• Sensory processing
• Perceptual thresholds
• Perceptual organization
Comprehension
• Source identification
• Message comprehension
• Consumer inferences
Exposure occurs when the consumer is presented with a marketing stimulus.
Marketers are now attempting a wide variety of tactics to increase stimulus exposure,
particularly since consumers’ exposure to marketing stimuli is selective. These efforts
are important as consumers now engage in behaviors that interfere with exposure like
zipping (fast forwarding through a videotaped program), zapping (switching channels
during commercials), and flipping (switching channels even when there is no
commercial). Among the efforts that marketers are using is road blocking—placing the
same ads on multiple channels simultaneously.
Attention occurs when the stimulus makes a conscious impression on the consumer
or the consumer allocates processing capacity to it. The key aspect of attention is that
Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
its attention-getting properties. Alternatively, the problem of habituation suggests that
familiar stimuli can lose their attention-getting power.
If exposure and attention are sufficient, the stimulus may reach one or more sensory
registers and be perceived through one of the five senses. Processing of stimuli
depends on the sense being used. Visual stimuli are influenced by the important
factors of: (a) size; (b) color (including hue, saturation, and lightness); and (c)
brightness and contrast. Hearing is influenced by intensity and music. Taste
perceptions are also critical for certain products, yet because tastes may vary across
cultures, marketers use taste tests to improve marketing strategy. In addition, the
chapter considers how smell and touch may influence the marketing strategy for
certain products.
The chapter then discusses the concept of sensory thresholds. The absolute threshold
is the lowest point at which an individual can experience a sensation, while the
differential threshold is the minimal difference that can be detected between two
stimuli (the just noticeable difference). For a marketing stimulus to be perceived, it
must be above the absolute threshold. The differential threshold is important when
marketers do not want consumers to either notice a difference between two stimuli
(e.g., a price increase) or want consumers to notice the difference (e.g., product
improvements). The chapter also considers that consumers do appear to have some
abilities to perceive things that are just outside their conscious level of awareness
(subliminal perception).
Perceptual organization occurs when consumers organize a set of stimuli into a
coherent perception. Gestalt principles of figure and ground, closure, and grouping
facilitate this process of organization.
CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
1. Discuss why marketers are concerned about consumers’ exposure to marketing
stimuli and what tactics they use to enhance exposure.
3. Describe the major senses that are part of perception and outline why marketers
are concerned about consumers’ sensory perceptions.
4. Discuss the process of comprehension, and outline how marketing-mix elements
can affect consumer inferences about products and brands.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. Exposure and CB
A. Exposure reflects the process by which the consumer comes into physical
contact with a stimulus.
1. Marketing Implications
a) Selection of media to fit target market, including broadcast, print,
product placement, Internet, and sponsorships
B. Factors Influencing Exposure
2. Position of an ad within a medium
Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
b) Placing an ad within a medium can influence exposure
c) Beginning vs. middle of commercial break in television
d) Front vs. back or inside magazine covers
3. Distribution and shelf placement
e) Where a product can be found in the marketplace
f) Shelf placement within the retailer’s store
4. Marketing Implications
g) Marketers are constantly striving to find unique media to expose
consumers to marketing stimuli.
C. Selective Exposure
5. Consumers select their exposure to stimuli.
h) Software to block “pop-up” ads
i) Zipping-consumers fast-forward through recorded programs
j) Zapping-consumers avoid ads by switching channels
k) Registering with Federal Do Not Call Registry allows consumers to
avoid telemarketing
l) Laws forbidding spam and unsolicited marketing messages via e–
mail, wireless phones and pagers
6. Marketing Implications
m) Marketers are testing media not saturated by advertising
D. Measuring Exposure
8. Internet exposure numbers are more difficult to measure.
II. Attention and CB
E. Characteristics of Attention
9. Attention refers to the process by which an individual devotes mental
activity to a stimulus.
10. Attention is selective; thus, consumers need to be led to allocate
resources to a given stimulus (e.g., a brand) or they may direct their
attention elsewhere.
12. Attention is limited and can be directed to only a few places.
F. Focal and Nonfocal Attention
13. Preattentive Processing
n) Preattentive processing- The non-conscious processing of stimuli,
such as in peripheral vision-refers to processing information from
peripheral vision.
o) Because attention is limited, consumers are not aware that
preatentive processing is occurring.
2. Preattentive Processing, Brand Name Liking and Choice
p) Some research suggests that consumers will like a brand name
more if they have processed it preattentively than if they have not
been exposed to it at all.
q) Other research suggests that preattentive processing may affect
consumers’ choices.
G. Marketing Implications
Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
III. Perception and CB
J. Perception occurs when stimuli are registered by one of the five senses.
K. Perceiving Through Vision: Size and Shape/Lettering/Image Location on
Package
21. Size and shape attracts attention
hh) Consumers tend to buy products in packages that appear taller.
23. Color can determine whether we see a stimulus and can be described
by three dimensions.
ii) Hue refers to the pigment contained in a color: Warm colors (e.g.,
red, orange, yellow) encourage activity and excitement; cool colors
(e.g., green, blue, and violet) are more soothing and relaxing.
jj) Saturation refers to the richness of a color.
kk) Lightness refers to the depth of tone in a color.
24. Color can affect consumers’ psychological responses and moods.
25. Color choices can have a great effect on consumers’ liking for a product.
26. Loud music or stark noises can increase the probability that a stimulus
will be perceived.
27. Speed and pitch of the audio portion of marketing messages can
affective attitudes toward the ad and brand.
28. Marketing Implications
nn) These stimuli can also influence behavior (e.g., faster music in a
29. Taste preferences change over time and vary across cultures.
30. Marketing Implications
31. Sensitivity to smell varies across individuals and groups.
qq) Women are more sensitive than men are.
rr) Younger consumers are more sensitive than older ones.
33. Companies can expose consumers to marketing stimuli through their
sense of smell.
tt) Smell can entice consumers to try a product
uu) Smells are more effective if appropriate to the product category
Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
involves the activation of sensory receptors by stimuli presented below
the perceptual threshold.
jjj) Subliminal stimuli are presented so briefly (or covertly) that they are
not consciously noticed, but can influence behavior.
kkk) Subliminal perception is different from preattentive processing.
44. Marketing Implications
lll) Whether consumers respond to subliminal messages in advertising
has been a controversial topic in marketing.
45. Research suggests that subliminal perception has limited effects on
consumers.
mmm)
However some studies indicate stimuli perceived subliminally are
analyzed for meaning and can elicit affective responses.
Q. How Do Consumers Perceive a Stimulus?
46. Perceptual Organization
47. Figure and Ground
ooo) Stimuli are interpreted with respect to their environment.
ppp) Key brand information should be the focal point of marketing
communications and background should not interfere.
48. Closure
qqq) Individuals have a need to organize perceptions into meaningful
“wholes.”
rrr) Using this principle, marketers create incomplete messages that
lead consumers to complete the messages themselves.
49. Grouping
sss) Stimuli are grouped to form meaningful impressions.
ttt) Marketers can influence perception of a brand by carefully placing it
where it will be grouped with appropriate, complementary stimuli.
50. Preference for the whole
1. Comprehension is extracting higher-order meaning from what we have
perceived in light of what we already know
a) Source identification-determine what the stimulus actually is
b) Message comprehension- determine what sense is made from the
message
c) Objective and subjective comprehension-is the derived meaning the
same is what the message actually stated?
Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
e) Effect of MAO-low motivation and limited opportunity to process it–
namely in a long or fleeting message increases miscomprehension
f) Effect of Culture-low context cultures generally separate words and
meanings from a message. In high context cultures, there is more
meaning in visuals.
2. Marketing Implications
a) keep message simple
b) repeat message
c) present it in different forms (i.e., integrated brand promotion)
d) make for perceptual fluency
e) earlier exposure in life leads to more recognition (established
brands benefit)
V. Consumer Influences
A. Brand Names and Symbols
1. Subjective comprehension of a marketing communication can be based on the
inferences consumers make from a brand symbol
B. Product Features and Packaging
1. Consumers may subjectively comprehend aspects of an offering based on
inferences they make from the product and the way that it is packaged
C. Price
1. Consumers infer quality via price
D. Message Wording
1. For instance, consumers focus on numbers more than units of measure
E. Retail Atmospherics, Displays, and Distribution
1. Differences between warehouse environments and upscale stores
2. Inferences about distribution- such as vending machines or food trucks
Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION
Possible answers are as follows.
51. How do zipping and zapping affect consumers’ exposure to stimuli such as
products and ads?
52. What is attention, and what are three key characteristics.
Attention is the way in which one allocates part of their mental activity to a
53. In what ways do prominence and habituation affect consumer attention?
54. What is perception, and what methods do we use to perceive stimuli?
55. Differentiate between the absolute threshold and the differential threshold, and
explain how these concepts relate to Weber’s Law.
The absolute threshold is the minimum amount of stimulus necessary to perceive
56. Identify four principles of perceptual organization and describe why marketers
need to know about them.
Perceptual organization is based primarily on the principles of figure and ground,
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7. Discuss how source identification and message comprehension affect consumers’
comprehension of a stimulus.
8. What are some ways that companies can use marketing-mix elements such as
brand names and symbols to affect consumer inferences?
SUGGESTED EXERCISES AND TEACHER GUIDELINES
57. Select a good or service that would typically be considered high in involvement
and one that would be considered low in involvement. Design an ad to encourage
attention to, and perception of, each chosen good or service. How are these two
situations similar? How are they different? Exchange your work with a classmate,
and explain your rationale for each ad. Review your classmate’s work as he or
she comments on yours, based on how effectively each ad attracts attention and
perception.
58. Browse through a copy of one of your favorite magazines looking for three ads
that you think are most effective for generating exposure, attention, and
perception. Also, find three ads that are ineffective for each process. What makes
the good ones effective? What do you think is wrong with the others, and how
could they be improved?
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59. Watch TV for one hour (recorded if possible). During this period, describe the ads
that got your attention. Why were they successful in attracting you? For which
ads did you want to engage in zipping or zapping, and why?
60. Identify as many examples as you can in which marketers want consumers to
perceive a just noticeable difference between their product and a competitor’s, or
between an old product and a new one. Also, find examples in which marketers
do not want consumers to perceive such a difference. Consider not only visual
aspects of the product or service, such as how big or small it is, but other
perceptual differences as well (how it tastes, feels, smells, sounds).
61. Visit a local shopping mall and examine the interiors of three or four stores.
Describe the physiological and psychological responses that different stores try to
create. How do they achieve these responses through the use of color,
brightness, and contrast? What other sensory stimuli do these stores use to
encourage consumer response?
62. Read about color trends and future color predictions in the press releases and
reports of the Color Marketing Group (http://www.colormarketing.org/). What
colors are expected to be popular in the next few years—and why? Choose a
particular product, such as a specific car model, and explain how the color
forecasts you reviewed might affect the marketing of that product.
By way of comparison, it is also interesting to capture information about colors
products such as fashion (e.g. shoes, shirts) and interior decorating.
63. Examine the home pages of two competing online retailers, such as Amazon.com
and Barnesandnoble.com. How does each site use the principles of perceptual
organization to focus consumer attention on specific offerings? How does each
make its stimuli pleasant, surprising, or easy to process. Which home page
Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
appears to be most effective in attracting your attention and perception – and
why?
From an initial impression, both sites are similar in structure (e.g., search function
ADDITIONAL DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
These discussion questions can be used as in-class activities or as thought questions
that the students consider while reading the chapter or to test their understanding of
the material after the reading and lecture are complete.
64. What role does attention play in advertising strategy?
Attention both affects what we perceive and is used to process something after
we have perceived it. Marketers can capture attention by making an ad (a)
65. What part does just noticeable differences (jn.) play in consumers’ perceptions of
a product?
Just noticeable difference (jnd) is the intensity difference needed between two
66. What strategies have marketers developed for increasing the likelihood that
consumers will be exposed to their marketing stimuli?
vvv. Marketers rely on both traditional and newer marketing communications
personal selling, publicity, magazines, TV, radio, billboards, direct mail,
Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
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13
newspapers, advertising specialties, and special-events advertising. Newer
types of marketing communications that generate exposure include placing
brands or products in movies or other forms of entertainment or in media.
Examples include instant coupon machines, infomercials, luggage carousels,
shopping carts, and the Internet.
www.
Marketers also calculate how to position an ad within a medium to increase
xxx. Finally, marketers know that exposure is likely to increase for products that
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
67. Explain what is meant by the term exposure and how exposure can be created
for marketing-related stimuli.
68. Discuss the concept of selective exposure and explain why it is important to
marketers. Offer some examples of how consumers engage in selective
exposure. Describe how these consumer behaviors can be addressed through
marketing efforts.
69. Explain why the following are important to the sensory processing of visual
stimuli: (a) brightness and contrast, (b) size of the product package, and (c) color.
Provide an example of each in a marketing context (other than those provided in
the text).
70. Explain why each of the following types of sensory processing can be important
71. Create your own definition of the absolute threshold and use an example to
explain why it is important for marketing strategy.
72. Create a definition for, and use a marketing example to describe, the differential
threshold. Identify when marketers would and would not want a difference to be
perceived.
73. Suppose from testing that it was determined that 7 cents had to be added to a
dollar before consumers would notice the difference. According to Weber’s law,
how much would have to be added to 5 dollars before consumers would notice
the difference?
Chapter 3: From Exposure, Attention, and Perception
nnnn)
Write down their ideas as they are presented.
oooo)
Concentrate on the principles being discussed rather than the
examples being used.
pppp)
Help them to see the interrelationships between their responses.
VII. Execute
AA. Apply what has been learned.
95. Lead a discussion on how the concepts can be applied in organizations.
qqqq)
What barriers may be faced in applying the concepts from the
exercise?
rrrr) What can be done to help others understand the concepts when
you use them at work?
BB. Transfer and use the knowledge.
96. Encourage students to make a record in their notes about how they will
use the ideas in the workplace.
97. Even if they do not have a specific job, how will they remember to use
what they have learned?