III. COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Managers can choose from a variety of communication media.
Some of the most popular are the internet, collaboration software, intranets, and oral
communication.
Media richness is an important factor for each form.
A. The Internet
The Internet has fundamentally changed how many managers communicate. Individuals using
the Internet are able to select only the information they want using information pull.
Information pull occurs when someone receives requested information.
This contrasts with the broadcast technique of information push where people receive
information without requesting it, just in case they need it.
Although technology should never replace all face-to-face interaction between leaders and
subordinates, it can help the communication process by giving leaders more communication
choices. Some companies have misused email in communicating important or sensitive
information.
Voice mail is similar to email but instead of writing, a spoken message is digitized and sent to
someone to be retrieved and listened to later.
Instant messaging enables users to see who is logged on and to chat with them in real time
rather than emailing and waiting for a response. Managers can also use various software tools
to meet without being face-to-face.
Telework is work conducted in a location other than a central office or production facility with
communications between coworkers and supervisors occurring via electronic communication
systems.
There are four major types of telework:
1. Home-based telecommuting includes people who work at home for some period on a
regular basis, but not necessarily every day.
2. Satellite offices are situated away from main offices to be more convenient for
employees and/or customers.
3. Neighborhood work centers provide office space for employees of more than one
company to save commutes to central locations.
4. Mobile work refers to work completed by traveling employees who use technology to
communicate with the office as necessary.
Telecommuting allows organizations to reduce the amount of office space they own or rent, and
decreases employees’ need to commute to work.
If telecommuting employees sometimes need to work at the company’s location, the company
can set up a hoteling space for them. This provides them with a cubicle or working space and a
connection to the company’s intranet.
B. Collaborative Software
Collaborative software, also called groupware, allows members of workgroups and teams to
share information to improve their communication, efficiency, and performance.
Groupware enhances collaboration by providing an electronic meeting site and integrating work
done on a single project from several different computers located anywhere in the world.
Collaborative writing systems allow group members to work simultaneously on written
documents through a network of interconnected computers.
Workflow automation systems use technology to facilitate and speed up work processes. These
systems send documents, information, or tasks to the right people or places based on the
established procedure.
Decision support systems are interactive, computer-based systems that help decision-making
teams find solutions to unstructured problems that require judgment, evaluation, and insights.
C. Intranets
At its simplest, an intranet is a website stored on a computer that is connected to other company
computers by an internal network.
Intranets are not useful if many employees do not use or have access to computers, or if no one
has the expertise to set up and manage the intranet.
Portals are similar to intranets but tend to be more project-focused. Portals allow managers to
use their browser to get a high-level summary of project status at any time.
Project managers use portals to manage schedules and any issues that arise. Managers can also
use portals to quickly disseminate information to all of their team members, wherever they are
located, and solicit input and feedback in a controlled manner.
Portals allow team members to easily share news and ideas, enhancing collaboration and
project implementation efficiency. Portals can be integrated with other applications.
Until recently, portals were strictly for big businesses due to their prohibitive cost. Their
complexity also required a team of computer specialists to set up and administer them.
But intranets have become more common as software vendors have developed packaged portal
solutions to suit almost every size business and meet almost every business need.
Webcasts are live or prerecorded video segments that are broadcast over a company’s intranet
and archived for employees to view later.
Wikis are searchable, archivable websites that allow people to comment on and edit one
another’s work in real time.
Wikis are well suited for collaborative writing and are essentially a simplified system of
creating webpages combined with a system that records and catalogs all revisions.
Unlike a portal or intranet, wikis have no inherent structure. Access can be restricted to a
limited group of people and even require passwords.
Blogs are individuals’ chronicles of personal thoughts and interests. In some cases, a CEO will
create a blog to communicate more directly with employees and stakeholders.
D. Oral Communication
Despite the speed and convenience of technology-based message channels, they can increase
the chances of miscommunication because the receiver has less opportunity to ask questions or
get clarification.
Technology has certainly changed the ways many managers communicate, but there will always
be a need for managers to communicate verbally.
Communicating in person is important to building credibility and trust. To be perceived as
competent communicators, managers must share and respond to information in a timely
manner, actively listen to other points of view, communicate clearly and succinctly, and utilize
a variety of communication channels.
E. Media Richness
Communication media can be classified in terms of their richness, or the media’s ability to
carry nonverbal cues, provide rapid feedback, convey personality traits, and support the use of
natural language.
The richness of a medium depends on four things:
1. Interactivity, or the availability of feedback. Immediate feedback allows senders to
adjust their messages. Richer media provide faster feedback.
2. The ability to transmit multiple cues, such as physical presence, voice inflection,
nonverbal cues, and pictures. Richer media allow the communication of multiple cues.
3. Language variety for conveying a broad set of concepts and ideas. Richer media
allows for greater language variety.
4. The personal focus of the medium, or the degree to which it allows the expression of
emotions and other social cues. Richer media allow for more personal focus.
Face-to-face is the richest medium because it has the capacity for immediate feedback, carries
multiple cues, and uses natural language.
When communicating, managers must choose the media that best matches the information
richness required of the task or communication.
The more ambiguous and uncertain a task is, the richer the media should be that supports it.
Sometimes the extra expense of face-to-face communication is worth the cost because of the
richness of the communication it enables as well as the respect and sincerity it conveys.
CASE STUDY: Communicating Ethics as Cisco
Summary: Technology provider Cisco Systems Inc. puts a high value on ethics and corporate social
responsibility. Cisco had been cramming ethics information down employees’ throats. Because
employees are tech-savvy engineers, the in-person, PowerPoint-based training was not working. Cisco
decided to make the ethics and compliance program fun.
1. What are the advantages of Ethics Idol as an ethics training communication medium over in–
person PowerPoint training?
Ethics Idol has been successful because of the good fit between the training delivery method and the
2. Would you enjoy this type of training program? Why or why not?
Most students would enjoy Ethics Idol as it is engaging but also challenging. As one expert says,
3. Can you think of other ways ethics and corporate social responsibility information could be
communicated in an engaging way?
Other reality shows and radio talk shows could provide different formats for teaching ethics. One
IV. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Organizational communication is the exchange of information among two or more individuals or
groups in an organization that creates a common basis of understanding and feeling.
Organizational communication can move in a variety of directions, and be formal or informal in
nature.
Figure 9.3 illustrates downward, upward, horizontal, and diagonal communication paths in
organizations.
A. Downward Communication
Downward communication occurs when higher-level employees communicate to those at lower
levels the organization—for example, from a manager to a subordinate.
Downward communication typically consists of messages about how to do a job, performance
goals, the firm’s policies, and how the company is performing.
Setting up procedures and creating a culture that enables the uninhibited flow of information is
the foundation of effective communication.
Management by wandering around is a face-to-face management technique in which managers
get out of their offices and spend time talking informally to employees throughout the
organization.
Information technology and the Internet have given managers more choices in how to
communicate downward, including email, instant messaging, intranets, portals, wikis, blogs,
and webcasts in addition to traditional verbal and written communication.
B. Upward Communication
Upward communication occurs when lower-level employees communicate with those at higher
levels—for example, when a subordinate tells a manager about a problem employees are having
meeting a customer’s request.
Encouraging upward communication can help managers check that subordinates understand
their goals and instructions, keep managers informed of employee challenges and complaints,
and cultivate acceptance and commitment by giving employees the opportunity to express ideas
and suggestions.
Despite its potential benefits, getting subordinates to give upward feedback can be challenging.
Being approachable, accessible, and creating a culture of trust and openness can help
subordinates feel more comfortable giving upward feedback.
One of the best ways to make subordinates comfortable sharing information may be
sympathetically listening to them during your daily informal contacts with them in and outside
of the workplace.
Technology tools such as wikis can enhance bottom-up communication in organizations. By
creating an open-source workspace, all employees can be part of the brainstorming and
problem-solving process.
C. Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication occurs when someone in an organization communicates with others at the
same organizational level.
Although horizontal communication occurs between peers, as in all organizational communications, it is
best to stay professional and avoid confrontational words and negative body language.
Managers can facilitate horizontal or interdepartmental communication by appointing liaison personnel
or creating interdepartmental committees or task forces to facilitate communication and coordination and
solve common problems.
D. Diagonal Communication
When employees communicate across departments and levels, they are engaging in diagonal
communication.
Diagonal communication is common in cross-functional project teams composed of people
from different levels drawn from different departments.
Diagonal communication allows employees in different parts of an organization to contribute to
creating a new product or solving a problem. Diagonal communication also helps to link groups
and spread information around the firm.
Diagonal communication can also be inappropriate depending on the situation and the people
involved. Subordinates who engage in diagonal communication may alienate their direct
supervisor who might feel “out of the loop” and punish the subordinate for disrespecting the
chain of command.
E. Formal and Informal Communication
Formal communications are official, organization-sanctioned communications. They can be
upward, downward, horizontal, or diagonal.
Formal communication channels typically involve some sort of written communication that
provides a permanent record of the exchange.
Formal communication is usually interpreted accurately.
Informal communication is anything that is not official. Informal communications include
gossip and answering another employee’s question about how to do something.
The grapevine is an example of an informal communication channel. The grapevine can
promote the spread of gossip or rumors, which can be destructive and interfere with the
functioning of the company, particularly if they are untrue.
As a manager, being aware of current office gossip can help to keep you informed of what is on
employees’ minds and prevent rumors from growing out of control.
If a rumor does start to spread, neutralize it by consistently and honestly communicating with
employees about the issue. Not making a comment is usually seen as confirmation of a rumor.
F. Social Networking
A social network is the set of relationships among people connected through friendship, family,
work, or other ties.
These informal networks can be helpful—they give employees access to people who can help
solve problems and get work done.
Our social networks consist of both formal and informal ties. Formal ties refer to relationships
with coworkers, bosses, and others we know because of the roles we hold. Informal ties are
relationships based on friendship and choice.
The pattern of relationships in a company influences its communication patterns and
information flow.
Personal contacts are essential to the success of salespeople and managers alike. Social
networking Internet sites take these personal relationships online.
Social networking also has a potential downside. If employees and customers are satisfied,
these networks can help build loyalty. If not, employees and customers will communicate and
amplify every complaint through these networks.
Both employees and managers need to be careful about what they post on Internet social
networking sites like Facebook, LinkedIn, and Instagram.
Summary and Application
The communication process starts when a sender translates (encodes) information into words, symbols, or
pictures and passes it to the receiver through some medium (channel).
The sender then receives the message, and retranslates(decodes) it into a message that is hopefully the
same as what the sender intended.
Noise can enter anywhere in the process, making the message received different from the one the sender
intended.
Feedback creates two-way communication that helps to check on the success of the communication and
ensure that the received message is accurate.
Nonverbal communication and task interdependence also affect the communication process, as do
potential barriers to effective communication.
Successful managers usually have strong communication skills and listening skills are especially
important.
Managers and employees use a variety of communication media. Managers need to fit the media to the
message, use appropriate body language and nonverbal cues, and ensure that subordinates understand the
meaning of the messages sent.
Organizational communication can move in a variety of directions, and be formal or informal in nature.
Communication paths can be downward, upward, horizontal, or diagonal. Social networks help to
establish communication patterns in organizations.