III. PROCESS-BASED PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION
Process-based perspectives focuses on why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their
needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals.
Two useful process perspectives on motivation are the equity and expectancy theories.
A. The Equity Theory of Motivation
The equity theory of motivation focuses on people’s desire to be treated with what they
perceive as equity and to avoid perceived inequity.
The theory defines equity as the belief that we are being treated fairly in relation to others and
inequity as the belief that we are being treated unfairly compared with others.
Social comparisons involve evaluating our own situation in terms of others’ situations. In this
chapter, we focus mainly on equity theory because it is the most highly developed of the social
comparison approaches and the one that applies most directly to the work motivation of people
in organizations.
1. Forming Equity Perceptions
People in organizations form perceptions of the equity of their treatment through a four–
step process.
First, they evaluate how they are being treated by the firm.
Second, they form a perception of how a “comparison-other” is being treated.
Third, they compare their own circumstances with those of the comparison-other and then
use this comparison as the basis for forming an impression of either equity or inequity.
Fourth, depending on the strength of this feeling, the person may choose to pursue one or
more of the alternatives discussed in the next section.
Equity theory describes the equity comparison process in terms of an input-to-outcome
ratio. Inputs are an individual’s contributions to the organization, outcomes are what the
person receives in return.
The equity comparison thus takes the following form:
Outcomes (self) compared with Outcomes (other)
Inputs (self) Inputs (other)
If the two sides of this psychological equation are comparable, the person experiences a
feeling of equity; if the two sides do not balance, a feeling of inequity results.
A perception of equity does not require that the perceived outcomes and inputs be equal,
but only that their ratios be the same.
2. Responses to Equity and Inequity
Figure 5.4 summarizes the results of an equity comparison.
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People may use one of six common methods to reduce inequity.
First, we may change our own inputs.
Second, we may change our own outcomes.
A third, more complex response is to alter our perceptions of ourselves and our behavior.
Fourth, we may alter our perception of the comparison-other’s inputs or outcomes.
Fifth, we may change the object of comparison.
Finally, as a last resort, we may simply leave the situation.
3. Evaluation and Implications
Findings support the predictions of equity theory quite consistently, especially when the
worker feels underpaid.
Most studies appear to uphold the basic premises of the theory. One interesting new twist
on equity theory suggests that some people are more sensitive than others to perceptions of
inequity.
For managers, the most important implication of equity theory concerns organizational
rewards and reward systems.
Equity theory offers managers three messages. First, everyone in the organization needs to
understand the basis for rewards.
Second, people tend to take a multifaceted view of their rewards; they perceive and
experience a variety of rewards, some tangible and others intangible.
Finally, people base their actions on their perceptions of reality.
B. The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Expectancy theory suggests that people are motivated by how much they want something and
the likelihood they perceive of getting it, also known as VIE theory.
1. The Basic Expectancy Model
Victor Vroom is generally credited with first applying the theory to motivation in the
workplace.
The basic premise of expectancy theory is that motivation depends on how much we want
something and how likely we think we are to get it.
Figure 5.5 summarizes the basic expectancy model. The model’s general components are
effort (the result of motivated behavior), performance, and outcomes. Expectancy theory
emphasizes the linkages among these elements, which are described in terms of
expectancies, instrumentalities, and valences.
2. Effort-to-Performance Expectancy
Effort-to-performance expectancy is a person’s perception of the probability that effort
will lead to successful performance.
If we believe our effort will lead to higher performance, this expectancy approaches a
probability of 1.0. If we believe our performance will be the same no matter how much
effort we make, our expectancy is very low, as low as 0.
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3. Performance-to-Outcome Instrumentality
Performance-to-outcome instrumentality (also known as performance-to-outcome
expectancy) is a person’s perception of the probability that performance will lead to certain
other outcomes.
As Figure 5.5 shows, several outcomes might logically result from performance. Each
outcome, then, has its own instrumentality.
4. Outcomes and Valences
An outcome is anything that results from performing a particular behavior. High-level
performance conceivably might produce such outcomes as a pay raise, a promotion,
recognition from the boss, fatigue, stress, or less time to rest, among others.
The valence of an outcome is the relative attractiveness or unattractiveness—the value—of
that outcome to the person. Pay raises, promotions, and recognition might all have positive
valences, whereas fatigue, stress, and less time to rest might all have negative valences.
The strength of outcome valences varies from person to person.
The basic expectancy framework suggests that three conditions must be met before
motivated behavior occurs.
First, the effort-to-performance expectancy must be well above zero.
Second, the performance-to-outcome instrumentalities must be well above zero.
Third, the sum of all the valences for the potential outcomes relevant to the person must be
positive.
5. The Porter-Lawler Model
Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler were researchers who used expectancy theory to develop
a novel view of the relationship between employee satisfaction and performance.
Porter and Lawler argued that if rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead
to satisfaction.
The Porter-Lawler model appears in Figure 5.6. Some of its features are quite different
from the original version of expectancy theory.
At the beginning of the motivational cycle, effort is a function of the value of the potential
reward for the employee (its valence) and the perceived effort-reward probability (an
expectancy). Effort then combines with abilities, traits, and role perceptions to determine
actual performance.
Performance results in two kinds of rewards. Intrinsic rewards are intangible—a feeling of
accomplishment, a sense of achievement, and so forth. Extrinsic rewards are tangible
outcomes such as pay and promotion.
If the rewards are regarded as equitable, the employee feels satisfied.
6. Evaluation and Implications
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Several studies have supported various parts of the theory.
Research has also confirmed expectancy theory’s claims that people will not engage in
motivated behavior unless they (1) value the expected rewards, (2) believe their efforts will
lead to performance, and (3) believe their performance will result in the desired rewards.
However, expectancy theory is so complicated that researchers have found it quite difficult
to test. Moreover, people are seldom as rational and objective in choosing behaviors as
expectancy theory implies.
Research has also suggested that expectancy theory is more likely to explain motivation in
the United States than in other countries.
Because expectancy theory is so complex, it is difficult to apply directly in the workplace.
A manager would need to figure out what rewards each employee wants and how valuable
those rewards are to each person, measure the various expectancies, and finally adjust the
relationships to create motivation.
Nevertheless, expectancy theory offers several important guidelines for the practicing
manager. The following are some of the more fundamental guidelines:
1. Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants.
2. Decide what levels and kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals.
3. Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible.
4. Link desired outcomes and desired performance.
5. Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies and instrumentalities.
6. Make sure the rewards are large enough.
7. Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone.
CASE STUDY: Pride-Building at Aramark
Summary: With 270,000 employees in 22 countries, Aramark wanted to motivate its employees who
clean airplanes for Delta and Southwest Airlines. Turnover of the low-paid, largely immigrant staff was
high while morale was low. Wallets and other valuables left on planes disappeared. After 5 years of
efforts to increase motivation, revenue rose from $5 million to $14 million.
1. What motivation theories apply to the workers at Aramark?
According to the two-factor theory, hygiene factors such as good working conditions (English and
2. If you were the manager of these employees, what would you do to motivate them? Be honest
regarding your personal management style and beliefs rather than trying to be like Roy Pelaez.
Students may find what motivates different employees in different countries and try to add those
3. What are some possible barriers to the effectiveness of your motivation ideas? What could you
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do to overcome them?
IV. LEARNING-BASED PERSPECTIVES ON MOTIVATION
Learning is another key component in employee motivation.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential that results from
direct or indirect experience.
A. How Learning Occurs
1. The Traditional View: Classical Conditioning
The most influential historical approach to learning is classical conditioning, developed by
Ivan Pavlov in his famous experiments with dogs.
Classical conditioning is a simple form of learning in which a conditioned response is
linked with an unconditioned stimulus. In organizations, however, only simple behaviors
and responses can be learned in this manner.
But this form of learning is obviously simplistic and not directly relevant to motivation.
For one thing, classical conditioning relies on simple cause-and-effect relationships
between one stimulus and one response; it cannot deal with the more complex forms of
learned behavior that typify human beings. For another, classical conditioning ignores the
concept of choice; it assumes that behavior is reflexive, or involuntary.
2. The Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process
Contemporary learning theory generally views learning as a cognitive process; that is, it
assumes that people are conscious, active participants in how they learn.
First, the cognitive view suggests that people draw on their experiences and use past
learning as a basis for their present behavior. These experiences represent knowledge, or
cognitions.
Second, people make choices about their behavior.
Third, people recognize the consequences of their choices.
Finally, people evaluate those consequences and add them to prior learning, which affects
future choices.
B. Reinforcement Theory and Learning
In its simplest form, reinforcement theory suggests that behavior is a function of its
consequences.
Reinforcement theory also suggests that in any given situation, people explore a variety of
possible behaviors.
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C. Social Learning
Social learning occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their
consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result (some experts refer to social learning as
social cognitive theory).
Social learning theory suggests that individual behavior is determined by a person’s cognitions
and social environment. More specifically, people are presumed to learn behaviors and attitudes
at least partly in response to what others expect of them.
Several conditions must be met to produce an appropriate environment for social learning.
First, the behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple.
Second, social learning usually involves observed and imitated behavior that is concrete, not
intellectual.
Finally, for social learning to occur, we must possess the physical ability to imitate the behavior
observed.
Social learning influences motivation in a variety of ways. Many of the behaviors we exhibit in
our daily work lives are learned from others.
D. Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is the application of reinforcement theory to influence the behaviors of
people in organizational settings.
Figure 5.7 summarizes these kinds of reinforcement.
1. Kinds of Reinforcement
There are four types of reinforcers, as shown in Figure 5.7.
Positive reinforcement involves the use of rewards to increase the likelihood that a desired
behavior—high performance, for instance—will be repeated.
Negative reinforcement is based on the removal of current or future unpleasant
consequences to increase the likelihood that someone will repeat a behavior. In other
words, avoidance or removal of something undesirable can be motivating.
Punishment is the application of negative outcomes to decrease the likelihood of a
behavior. For example, a manager might reduce the work hours of low-performing
employees.
Finally, extinction involves the removal of other reinforcement (positive or negative)
following the incidence of the behavior to be extinguished to decrease the likelihood of that
behavior being repeated.
For reinforcement to work, people must associate the reward with the behavior. In other
words, people need to know exactly why they are receiving a reward.
To best reinforce a behavior, the reward should come as quickly as possible after the
behavior. Some of the most powerful rewards are symbolic—things that cost very little but
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mean a lot to the people who get them. Examples of symbolic rewards are things like
plaques or certificates.
Rewards also impact ethical behavior choices. Rewards do not always increase ethical
behavior because the presence of the reward can undermine the intrinsic value of the ethical
behavior.
2. The Timing of Reinforcement
Reinforcement should ideally come immediately after the behavior bring influenced.
It is useful to understand the various schedules that can be used to provide reinforcement.
A continuous reinforcement schedule is one in which the desired behavior is reinforced
each time that it occurs. A partial reinforcement schedule is one in which the desired
behavior is reinforced only part of the time.
There are four types of partial reinforcement schedules:
1. Fixed-ratio: Desired behavior is reinforced after a specified number of correct
responses – for example, receiving pay bonuses for every ten error-free pieces made
per hour.
2, Fixed-interval: Desired behavior is reinforced after a certain amount of time has
passed – for example, receiving weekly paychecks.
3. Variable-ratio: Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of
behaviors – for example, a supervisor praises a call center representative after the third
call, then the seventh call after that, and then the fourth call after that.
4. Variable-interval: Desired behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time
has elapsed – for example, not knowing when a regional supervisor will visit your
location for an inspection.
Fixed-ratio schedules produce a high, consistent rate of responding with desired behaviors
but with fast extinction when the reinforcement stops.
Research suggests that the fastest way to get someone to learn is to use continuous
reinforcement and reinforce the desired behavior every time it occurs.
The most effective schedule for sustaining a behavior is variable reinforcement.
In terms of behavior modification, any behavior can be understood as being a result of its
consequences.
To motivate the right behavior, an expert in behavior modification would identify the
desired behaviors and then carefully reinforce them.
This process involves five steps:
1. Define the problem – what is it that could be improved?
2. Identify and define the specific behavior(s) you wish to change.
3. Record and track the occurrence of the target behavior.
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4. Analyze the current negative consequences of the undesired behavior and arrange for
more positive consequences to follow the desired behavior.
5. Evaluate whether the behavior has improved, and by how much.
This chapter has covered a variety of theories that can be used by managers to motivate
employee performance. Table 5.1 summarizes how different motivation concepts covered
in this chapter can be applied to a variety of common management challenges.
Understanding why and how a motivational perspective works helps managers better match
motivational techniques with motivation opportunities and enhances the likelihood of
success.
Summary and Application
Motivation is the set of forces that cause people to behave as they do. Motivation starts with a need.
People search for ways to satisfy their needs and then behave accordingly. Their behavior results in
rewards or punishment. Scientific management asserted that money is the primary human motivator in
the workplace. The human relations view suggested that social factors are primary motivators.
According to Abraham Maslow, human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance, from
physiological to security to belongingness to esteem to, finally, self-actualization. The ERG theory is a
refinement of Maslow’s original hierarchy that includes a frustration-regression component. In Herzberg’s
two-factor theory, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two distinct dimensions instead of opposite ends of
the same dimension.
The equity theory of motivation assumes that people want to be treated fairly. It hypothesizes that people
compare their own input-to-outcome ratio in the organization with the ratio of a comparison-other.
Expectancy theory, a somewhat more complicated model, follows from the assumption that people are
motivated to work toward a goal if they want it and think that they have a reasonable chance of achieving
it. The Porter-Lawler version of expectancy theory provides useful insights into the relationship between
satisfaction and performance. This model suggests that performance may lead to a variety of intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards.
Learning also plays a role in employee motivation. Various kinds of reinforcement provided according to
different schedules can increase or decrease motivated behavior. People are affected by social learning
processes. Organizational behavior modification is a strategy for using learning and reinforcement
principles to enhance employee motivation and performance. This strategy relies heavily on the effective
measurement of performance and the provision of rewards to employees after they perform at a high
level.