CHAPTER 3
Regional Economic Integration
Chapter Outline
• Introduction
• What Is Regional Economic Integration?
• Stages of Regional Integration
• Pros and Cons of Regional Integration
• The Economic Geography of Regional Integration
• Steps to Regional Integration
o Start Small
o Think Global
o Compensate the Least Fortunate
• Major Classes and Characteristics of Regional Integration
o Regional Blocs Close to World Markets
o Remote Regions with Large Local Markets
o Remote Regions with Small Local Markets
• Does Regional Integration Confound Global Trade?
• The European Union (EU)
o Turkey
o The Euro
• The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
• Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
o ASEAN Security Community (ASC)
o ASEAN Economic Community
o ASEAN Sociocultural Community
o The Future of ASEAN
• Regional Integration in Latin America
Teaching Objectives
After covering this chapter, the student should be able to:
• Explain regional economic integration, its evolution, and its benefits and costs.
• Identify how economic geography helps explain, promote, and segment regional
integration blocs.
• Identify the primary reasons why countries are now seeking to pursue regional integration
at the expense of multilateral trade liberalization.
• Explain why the European Union is seen as the most advanced regional integration bloc.
• Describe how NAFTA has affected U.S.–Mexico bilateral trade in goods and services.
• Explain the importance of ASEAN and indicate why Asia may become the most
important free trade region for this century.
• Explain why regional integration in Latin America is challenging, and why there is
potential for a grouping like MERCOSUR to become more predominant.
COMPREHENSIVE LECTURE OUTLINE
I. Introduction. Regional integration is an ongoing process. Reasons for regional
integration are economic, political, or combination of both. Regional integration can bridge
barriers between national borders, and increase interdependence within a region and the rest of
the world.
CLASS ACTIVITY: Use the Cultural Perspective case as an opportunity to allow students to
explore the impact of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) Agreement. Exhibit 3.1 • Trans-
Pacific Partnership Agreement
II. What Is Regional Economic Integration? Some countries prefer to work closely
within a regional setting. Because the future of the Doha Round of trade liberalization is
uncertain, there has been a sharp increase in the number of regional trade and integration
agreements.
Regional Integration includes a multitude of economic and/or political steps. Exhibit 3.2 •
Form and Stages of Regional Integration.
• Stages of Regional Integration can take several forms, representing varying
degrees of integration.
▪ Countries that create a free-trade area eliminate all barriers to trade
among themselves while keeping their external tariffs with non-members.
▪ In a customs union all free trade member countries will adopt a common
external tariff with nonmember countries.
▪ Removal of barriers to allow free movement of capital and labor within
the customs union leads to a common market.
▪ Within the common market, the implementation of common social
programs and coordinated macroeconomic policies could lead to
economic and monetary union.
▪ Finally, the urge to have common defense and foreign policies may lead to
the creation of political union.
• Pros and Cons of Regional Integration depend upon the level of integration
the countries in the group achieve.
▪ The benefits of regional integration include:
• Creating a larger pool of consumers with growing incomes and
similar culture and values.
• Encouraging economies of scale, increasing the region’s level of
competitiveness, and enhancing growth.
• Freeing the flow of capital, labor, and technology to the most
productive areas of economic activity.
• Increasing cooperation, peace and security.
• Encouraging member states to enhance their social welfare.
▪ The costs of regional integration include:
• Undermining the almost global most-favored-nation status rule.
• Imposing laws and regulations that are not globally uniform.
• Eliminating jobs and increasing unemployment in protected
industries.
• Losing sovereignty, national independence, and identity.
• Reducing the powers of the national government.
• Increasing the probability of rising crime associated with ease of
cross-border movements.
DISCUSSION STARTER: REALITY CHECK 1.
Do you believe that increased regional integration will, overall, help or hurt the citizens of
your city? Defend your position.
III. The Economic Geography of Regional Integration. The World Bank concludes that
positive changes related to market size, location, and openness to trade are essential for
successful regional integration. Hence, the policy instruments needed for successful integration
include institutions that unify the markets, infrastructure that efficiently connects these markets,
and lower economic barriers to facilitate trade.
• Steps to Regional Integration. Regional integration is more than just cross-
border trade liberalization. The appropriate approach includes the following three
fundamentals:
o Start Small. Regional integration should have clear goals and initially
address a narrow, well-defined area of cooperation in which the costs and
benefits are easily defined.
o Think Global. Regional integration should not create unconnected or
isolated countries. Instead, it should help countries gain access to world
markets.
o Compensate the Least Fortunate. Regional integration will lead to a
concentration of economic activity in fewer places with increased
efficiency and competitiveness. It also means that some regions will gain
more than others. Explicit compensation programs may be required to
ensure access to social services and basic infrastructure in lagging areas.
• Major Classes and Characteristics of Regional Integration. In global trade
agreements, tariff and non-tariff barriers are reduced or eliminated using MFN
rules. Under regional trade agreements, tariff and non-tariff barriers are reduced
only among member countries. When the various regional integration blocs are
analyzed from an economic geography perspective, they fall under three general
categories:
o Regional Blocs Close to World Markets. Market access is essential for
economic growth, and proximity to world markets is an asset for just-in–
time production, exports of perishable goods, and tradable services.
Exhibit 3.3 • Regions Close to World Markets.
ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES: The Ascent of the Maghreb Union. Use the Economic
Perspectives case as an opportunity to discuss the impact of the Maghreb Union on the
economies of the five North African countries that are its members and the nearby E.U.
countries.
Suggestion: You could ask students to do this case as individuals or in teams as a class activity.
Have the students read the case presented in the text and answer the questions at the end of the
case.
Questions:
1. Name some reasons why the countries of the European Union periphery may be losing
their competitiveness against the Maghreb countries. Answer: Wage rates in the
2. What are some of the major business reasons why investors find the Maghreb an
attractive economic region for future investment? Answer: Maghreb countries are
o Remote Regions with Large Local Markets. Sizeable countries that are
far from large world markets can benefit by attracting industrial activities
because of their large local market. If the country’s infrastructure is well
connected to world markets, this advantage is reinforced. Exhibit 3.4 •
Regions with Some Large Local Markets but Located Far from World
Markets.
o Remote Regions with Small Local Markets. International integration is
most difficult for countries in regions that are divided, far from world
markets, and lack the economic size of a large local economy. Regional
integration is paramount for their growth and can be achieved through
institutional reform, increasing infrastructure investments to improve
market access, and incentives such as preferential access to world markets,
liberalized rules of origin, and skills development. Exhibit 3.5 • Regions
with Small Local Markets Located Far from World Markets.
ETHICAL PERSPECTIVES: The Chinese Syndrome. Use the Ethical Perspectives case as an
opportunity to discuss the socioeconomic impact of economic integration and ethicality of the
bilateral deal between China and DR Congo.
Questions:
1. Does the DR Congo-China venture make economic integration sense? Explain. Answer:
2. Do you believe that the Chinese are behaving ethically, or are they taking advantage of
the DR Congo? Can you identify other strategic choices that DR Congo could use to
develop its mineral resources? Answer: The joint venture will be 1/3 DR Congolese and
DISCUSSION STARTER: REALITY CHECK 2.
Identify the regional integration blocs of which your country is a part. Do you think that being
part of these regional integration blocs has helped or hurt your personal welfare? How?
IV. Does Regional Integration Confound Global Trade? Groups of countries have formed
various kinds of economic cooperation agreements. Economists are concerned that as a result of
these negotiations, the prospects of creating a truly open global economic system that benefits all
countries may recede.
DISCUSSION STARTER: REALITY CHECK 3.
Are policymakers in your country pushing for more regional integration or global
integration? Why? Will that benefit you personally? If so, how?
V. The European Union (EU). The EU, headquartered in Brussels, is the most highly
evolved example of regional integration. It is in the fourth stage of the integration process, and is
moving toward political union with common defense and foreign policy institutions.
• The origins of the EU can be traced back to the creation of the European Coal and Steel
Community (ECSC) in 1952. The objective of ECSC was to encourage member
countries to cooperate in steel production, preventing the member countries from warring
with each other.
• The second major step was the Treaty of Rome signed in 1957. It established the
European Economic Community (EEC) that called for free trade among members as well
as a common external tariff for non-members.
• In 1992 the Maastricht Treaty was signed and the EEC became a full economic union or
single market with free movement of labor among member countries.
• The EU’s enlargement was mostly gradual, reaching 28 member countries by 2013.
Exhibit 3.6 The European Union; Exhibit 3.7 The European Union and the United
States: A Comparison.
▪ Turkey. The fate of EU candidate country Turkey is uncertain. Geographically, about
5% of Turkey’s land mass is in Europe. Due to its low per-capita income level,
significant EU budgetary resources may be needed for Turkey’s infrastructure
development. Some other issues of concern to existing members are the powerful role of
the military within a nascent democracy, a questionable human rights record, and a large
and predominantly Muslim population.
▪ The Euro. The Eurozone’s single currency was introduced on January 1, 1999. Its
performance until the start of the European sovereign debt crisis in 2009 was remarkable.
The international role of the euro as a foreign exchange reserve currency is gaining
ground. After meeting strict fiscal and monetary criteria, 18 of 28 EU countries that
formed the Eurozone were allowed to use the euro as their currency. The European
Central Bank (ECB), based in Frankfurt, is the apex central bank for the Eurozone
countries. It maintains responsibility for the Eurozone’s monetary policy—maintaining
annual Eurozone inflation at below but close to 2%—and the stability of the euro.
DISCUSSION STARTER: REALITY CHECK 4.
Using end-of-year annual data, identify how the value of the euro has changed (with respect
to your national currency) over the past five years. In your opinion, has the euro been stable?
Would this be the right time to visit the European Union? Explain.
VI. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). NAFTA is a comprehensive
free-trade agreement among Canada, the United States, and Mexico. It addresses issues ranging
from protection of workers’ rights and the environment to phased reduction of tariff and non–
tariff barriers by 2009. Exhibit 3.8 North American Free Trade Agreement.
• NAFTA has three major objectives:
o Expansion of trade in goods and services
o Protection of intellectual property rights
o Creation of institutions to address potential environmental and labor problems
• Until 2004, the United States’ top two trade partners were Canada and Mexico.
However, since that time, China has surpassed Mexico and has become the United
States’ second largest trade partner. Exhibit 3.9 United States: Exports and Imports of
Goods to and from Top Ten Trade Partners.
DISCUSSION STARTER: REALITY CHECK 5.
If you are living in the United States, visit a local chain grocery store like Kroger or Safeway
and investigate from where some of those fresh vegetables come. Is NAFTA at work?
VII. Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). ASEAN, headquartered in Jakarta,
was established in 1967. ASEAN’s current membership stands at 10. Exhibit 3.10 Association
of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). As of 2013, the ASEAN region had a population of
625 million, a land area of 4.4 million square kilometers, and a combined GDP of $2.4 trillion.
Exhibit 3.11 ASEAN Selected Key Economic Indicators. ASEAN’s two main objectives are:
• To accelerate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development
• To promote regional peace and stability through the rule of law
In 2003 ASEAN leaders agreed to establish an ASEAN Community based on three pillars:
• ASEAN Security Community (ASC). ASC’s objective is to ensure that countries in the
region live in peace with one another. Since ASEAN’s establishment, tension has never
escalated into armed confrontation among ASEAN members.
• ASEAN Economic Community. The goal is to create a stable, prosperous, and highly
competitive economic region. The ASEAN Economic Community calls for the
establishment of a single market, but it does not call for the free movement of labor
across member countries.
• ASEAN Sociocultural Community. The goal is to ensure that the ASEAN workforce is
well prepared to benefit from the economic integration. Programs are being put into place
through investments in basic and higher education, training, R&D, and raising the
standard of disadvantaged groups and the rural population through better health care and
social protection.
The Future of ASEAN. ASEAN’s Vision 2020 calls for aggressive outward-looking economic
policies. If all goes as planned, ASEAN inspired FTAs will create the world’s largest free trade
area,comprising much of Asia. A growing ASEAN concern is the economic ascendancy of
China.
DISCUSSION STARTER: REALITY CHECK 6.
Identify the ASEAN country that is considered to be the regional hub for multinational
corporations operating in Asia. How does that country’s per capita income compare with the
United States and why?
VIII. Regional Integration in Latin America. The first step toward free trade in Latin
America was taken with the signing of the Treaty of Montevideo in 1960, which created the
Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA).
• In 1969, the Andean Group was created in frustration due to the lack of progress in
LAFTA.
• The Treaty of Asuncion, signed in 1991, created the Southern Cone Common Market, or
MERCOSUR. Exhibit 3.12 Regional Integration in Latin America. The treaty called
for progressive tariff reduction, the adoption of sectoral agreements, a common external
tariff, and the ultimate creation of a common market. Much remains to materialize in
MERCOSUR. The newest member to join Mercosur was Venezuela in July 2012.
Guyana and Surinam signed a framework agreement with Mercosur in July 2013 to
become associate states.
• Formal discussion to establish a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) began in 1994
under the Clinton administration, but the outlook remains uncertain.
• The Bush administration began free-trade talks with the five Central American countries
and the Dominican Republic. DR-CAFTA became effective in 2005.
DISCUSSION STARTER: REALITY CHECK 7.
Visit your local grocery supermarket and discover from where the various brands of premium
coffee beans come. Which trade agreement do you think makes that choice possible?
Assignments
End-of-Chapter Discussion Questions
1. Will countries be better off under a multilateral economic liberalization
regime or under a system of regional economic integration? Why? Answer:
2. How useful is economic geography in explaining the success of regional
economic integration blocs? Give examples. Answer: Economic geography
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and openness to trade helps explain why some markets are developing faster
than others.
3. Why are countries pushing to sign regional integration blocs? Answer: Some
4. Although the European Union is the most advanced form of regional
integration, it is currently facing a challenging time. What are some of the
major challenges facing the EU? Answer: The EU imposes uniform laws
5. NAFTA has improved Mexico-U.S. trade and investment, yet bilateral trade
between the United States and China is greater than with Mexico. Why is
this true? Answer: Although the U.S. remains Mexico’s largest trade
6. It appears likely that a free trade area in much of Asia is likely by the end of
2020. What are the global implications for such a development? Answer:
7. Regional integration in Latin America offers tremendous potential. Yet
economic achievements are relatively modest so far. Why? Answer:
Mini-Case Synopsis and Questions
The rapid enlargement of the EU raises some questions about the reasons for recent
expansion and the proper procedure for vetting the new members. Some experts
and EU bureaucrats argue that the purpose of enlargement should be political—i.e.,
to keep Europe safe for democracy, which means that new members should be
admitted even without adequate vetting. Critics call for a uniform enforcement of
rule of law and tighter, more effective regulation of the financial sector within the
EU.
Questions:
1. Given the security concerns of both the EU and Russia, where should the
EU’s eastern border end? Do you think the buffer states should become
NATO members as well? Why or why not? The geographical borders of
2. Should non-uniformity policies in the EU (i.e., cherry picking EU policies
that members may choose to follow) be tolerated or encouraged? Make your
Point/Counterpoint, Interpreting Global Business News, and Portfolio Projects
Students’ answers to these assignments will vary widely. Their writing should
reflect an understanding of the chapter’s basic concept, thorough research, and
logic and critical thinking skills.