3. Our needs, interests, and motives also influence what we selectively perceive.
B. Organization is arranging perceptions in meaningful ways. Constructivism is a theory
that holds that we organize and interpret experience by applying schemata (cognitive
structures). Four types of cognitive structures:
C. Interpretation is the subjective process of creating explanations for what we observe and
experience.
1. Attributions are explanations of why things happen or why people act as they do.
There are four dimensions of attributions:
II. Perception is influenced by many factors.
2. The actual demands of a social role—i.e., your profession—influence your
interpretations.
E. Cultural factors influence perceptions.
1. A culture consists of beliefs, values, understandings, and ways of interpreting
experience that a number of people share.
2. A social community is a group of people that are part of an overall society, but have
unique values and practices within their group.
3. Western culture’s emphasis is on technology and leads us to expect things to happen
fast while some other countries prefer a more leisurely pace.
III. Digital Media and Perception
A, Our choices of digital media – liberal or conservative, local or national – shape our
perceptions.
B. Our social media communities shape our perceptions—what we and others post, tweet,
and share.
IV. Guidelines for improving skills in perceiving.
A. Avoid mind reading.
1. Do not assume you understand what another person thinks or feels.
2. When we mind read, we impose our perceptions on the other person.
B. Check perceptions with others.
1. Compare subjective perceptions to arrive at common understandings.
2. Assume a tentative tone, instead of a dogmatic or accusatory one.
C. Distinguish facts from inferences and judgments.
1. An inference is a deduction that goes beyond what you know as fact.
2. A judgment is an opinion based on observations, feelings, or assumptions.
D. Monitor the self-serving bias.
1. Monitoring is becoming aware of our own behavior in order to observe and regulate
it.
2. Avoid blaming others or judging them too harshly.
KEY CONCEPTS
Attribution
Cognitive complexity
Cognitive schemata
Constructivism
Culture
Empathy
Expectation Violation Theory
Individualism
Inference
Interpretation
Judgment
Mind reading
Monitoring
Perception
Personal Construct
Person-centeredness
Positive Visualization
Prototype
Schemata
Script
Self-serving bias
Social Community
Stereotypes
ACTIVITY: DO YOU SEE WHAT I SEE?
Purpose/Objective:
To help students understand the factors influencing their perceptions.
Instructions:
Show the class a large picture (a photo or a painting). The picture should have a fair amount of
detail in it. For example, you can visit www.google.com, select the “Image search” and search
for “people working.” Scan the photos and find one that involves a number of different people
engaged in some kind of work activity. Allow three minutes for students to study the picture
carefully and write down what they see. Do not provide any other instructions. If they ask for
any kind of clarification, merely repeat your instructions and tell them to write down what they
see. As a class discuss their responses, probing how it is that people can look at the same picture,
yet see different things in it. Ask the students what they think influenced what they saw in the
picture. Did their age or gender affect what they saw in the picture? What about their
expectations? Did the fact that they may have thought of this as just an “exercise” influence how
much effort they put into describing the picture?
ACTIVITY: LOOK AT ME, NO LOOK AT ME
Purpose/Objective:
To make students aware of how we tend to selectively notice things that are louder, brighter,
larger, or otherwise stand out, while often overlooking other phenomena.
Instructions:
ACTIVITY: JUST STICK TO THE SCRIPT
Purpose/Objective:
To help students understand the cognitive schemata they use to make sense of the world, and
particularly how scripts organize our perceptions.
• A man talking with another man about a deeply personal relationship that has just
ended
• A son or daughter telling a parent they want to put off college and travel around the
world for a year
• A police officer stopping a person for a traffic violation
Debrief as each group completes its performance recalling some of the issues and features
discussed in the textbook.
PANEL IDEA
1. Multi-racial Panel: Create a panel of individuals who are of different non-Caucasian
races that are substantially represented on your campus (I generally invite an American
Indian, an African American, a Latino or Latina, and an Asian American). In this case it
would be ideal to have panelists who are students so that they can talk peer–to-peer with
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Prior to class, have students spend about 15 to 20 minutes lurking on the message board
of a soap opera fan website of their choice, e.g., http://www.soapoperafan.com/days/ or
http://soapzone.com/boards/topics.php/amc/main. During class time, break into groups to
discuss/apply key terms from the chapter to what they discovered in the message boards.
Pay particular attention to how they perceived others and what influenced their
perceptions. How accurately do they suppose people present themselves on these kinds of
message boards?
2. Reflect on how you have changed over your lifetime. Did others perceive those
differences? Why or why not? Think about someone you’ve known for a long time. In
what ways have you changed your perceptions of them? What about someone you met
who made a strong first impression on you. After you got to know them better, were your
perceptions of them altered? Why or why not? Can you think of someone you started
out not liking but then liked later? How about the other way around? How do you
explain this?
MOVIE—CATCH ME IF YOU CAN
COMMUNICATION SCENARIOS DVD
Case: Jim is having a problem with his parents. According to Jim, his father’s expectations are
too high for Jim’s academic work. As you watch and listen to Jim’s conversation with his father
and Sam, look for examples of mind reading, self-serving bias, and attributional errors.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. The active process of selecting, organizing and interpreting people, objects, events,
situations, and activities is known as __________ [p. 44, II]
2. Don goes to class on Friday but the instructor is not present. The teaching assistant
announces that the instructor is ill and there will be no class that day. When Don comes to
class on Monday, he notices that students are handing in an assignment to the instructor. He
discovers that the TA told students that even though there was no class Friday, they had a
homework assignment to complete. Don’s failure to attend to that part of the TA’s message
e. interpretation
3. Which of the following is a personal construct? [p. 46, III]
e. your expectation of how a co-worker will behave
e. prototypes
e. your expectation of how a co-worker will behave
6. Which of the following is a script? [p. 48, III]
e. your expectation of how a co-worker will behave
7. Annika says, “I didn’t get a job offer because the interviewer was biased and it was a nasty
day. However, Kathy didn’t get an offer because she isn’t qualified.” This is an example of
__________. [p. 49, III]
a. construct differentiation
8. All of the following influence perceptions EXCEPT __________. [pp. 51–57, II]
a. social roles
9. When you are tired, stressed, or sick, you are likely to perceive things more negatively than
when you are well rested. This is an example of __________. [p. 51, III]
10. The technique for imagining ourselves as successful is called __________. [p. 52, I]
e. none of the above
11. Three-year-old Elena calls every adult male “Daddy” because she doesn’t yet make cognitive
distinctions among men. This is an example of __________. [p. 54, III]
e. reliance on multiple schemata
12. According to Wood, the ability to feel with another person is called __________. [p. 56, I]
a. cognitive complexity
13. Cultural influences in the United States tend to place high value on which of the following?
d. cooperation and deference
14. Which of the following is an example of tentative language? [p. 60, II]
a. Lucy is mean.
b. Rosie is friendly.
15. Mike arrives at his class after the students and teacher have already begun discussing the
topic for the day. Mike doesn’t make any contributions during discussion. Based on what you
know, which of the following is (are) inferences about Mike? [pp. 59–60, III]
16. A deduction that goes beyond what you know or assume to be a fact is known as
e. expectancy violation theory
17. The number of personal constructs used, how abstract they are, and how elaborately they
interact to shape perceptions is called __________. [pp. 53–54, II]
18. The ability to perceive another as a unique individual is called __________. [p. 55, II]
a. personal construct theory
19. A group of people who are part of an overall society but also distinct from the overall society
in that they hold values, understandings, and practices that are not shared by people outside
c. isolated culture
d. native culture
e. community theatre
20. Catching yourself in the process of self-serving bias is most likely the result of __________.
[pp. 60–61, III]
4. Empathy and person-centeredness are the same. [II] F
5. Cultures can be made up of social communities that have their own unique values and
practices. [II] T
4 // ENGAGING IN VERBAL COMMUNICATION
I. Language consists of symbols that are used to represent people, events, and all that goes on
in and around us.
A. Verbal communication refers to the spoken or written word.
B. Nonverbal communication includes symbols other than words.
III. There are three key principles of communication that help us understand how meaning is
created.
A. Interpretation creates meaning.
1. Interpretation is an active, creative process used to make sense of experiences.
2. Brute facts are objective, concrete phenomena, and activities.
3. Institutional facts are the meanings of brute facts based on human communication.
4. How one interprets the symbols communicated has as much to do with you as the
interpreter as with what others have communicated.
IV. Six symbolic abilities affect our lives profoundly.
A. Language defines phenomena.
1. The symbols we use affect how we think and feel.
2. The way we name, or label, define phenomena and shape what they mean to us.
3. A label directs our attention to certain aspects and away from others.
4. Totalizing occurs when we respond to a person as if one label totally represents what
she or he is.
B. Language evaluates phenomena.
1. Language is not neutral; it is laden with values.
D. Language allows us to think hypothetically about experiences and ideas that are not part
of our concrete reality.
1. Hypothetical thought is possible because we can symbolically represent past, present
and future even though we exist in the present.
2. We can think of alternatives to what exists and places we’ve never been.
3. Thinking hypothetically helps us improve who we are.
E. Language allows us to reflect on ourselves.
1. We are able to think about ourselves.
2. We are able to monitor our behavior and the images we present to others.
3. The ME aspect of self is the socially aware self that reflects on the I, which is the
creative, impulsive aspect of self.
4. Self-reflection allows us to monitor ourselves and modify our impulses.
5. Self-reflection allows us to manage the image we convey to others.
F. Language defines relationships and interaction.
1. Language is used to convey messages about how we perceive ourselves and others.
2. We use language to regulate interactions.
3. We use language to convey three dimensions of relationships-level meanings:
responsiveness, liking, and power.
V. Digital Media and Verbal Communication
1. Qualify generalizations so as to avoid making general statements absolute ones.
2. Avoid static evaluations, which are assessments that suggest something is
unchangeable.
3. Adopt indexing, which suggests that our evaluations apply only to specific time and
1. Use I-language so that you take responsibility for your thoughts and feelings whereas
You-language projects your feelings onto another person.
2. I-language provides concrete descriptions of behaviors without holding the other
person responsible for how we feel.
KEY CONCEPTS
Abstract
Ambiguous
Arbitrary
Brute facts
Communication rules
Constitutive rules
Hypothetical thought
I
I-language
Indexing
Institutional facts
Loaded Language
Me
Nonverbal communication
Punctuation
Reappropriation
Regulative rules
Static evaluation
Symbol
Totalizing
Verbal communication
You-language
ACTIVITY: Is Our Language Sexist and Racist?
Purpose/Objective:
To increase awareness of how language reflects cultural assumptions that males and/or
Caucasians are the standard, and anyone else is an exception to that standard.
Instructions:
Read aloud, one at a time, the statements below. Ask students to decide if each statement
appears to be sexist and/or racist, perhaps pointing out the bias listed. Be aware that some of
these statements may provoke strong reactions in your students and consider beforehand how to
manage this. Invite students to suggest more neutral ways to phrase each sentence. Conclude
the class session by discussing the importance of language in shaping how we think about
ourselves and others. Talk with students about how self-concept is affected when a person is
defined as non-standard. Adaptation for Online Learners: This exercise can easily be used in a
discussion board or as a quiz. Provide the students with the ten statements and ask them to discuss how
each is sexist or racist.
ACTIVITY: Inventing Symbols
Purpose/Objective:
This exercise is designed to give students an appreciation of the constructed character of all
symbols.
Instructions:
Give your students a list of words, some more difficult in their meaning than others (a list of
“difficult” words is included below) and ask them to check off the words they think they know.
After students have completed their checklist, ask them to share with the rest of the class their
definitions for the words they think they know. Do not provide any feedback and encourage
other students to speak up if they think the word means something different. Next, give your
students a matching quiz using the words on the first list and their correct definitions. Give the
students 5 to 10 minutes to complete the quiz. When they are finished, go over the results with
your class. Conclude the exercise with a discussion of the arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract
nature of symbols. How did the students try to figure out the meaning of the words? Did the class
discussion influence their choices in any way? You might also want to discuss other factors that
influence the meaning we attribute to symbols, e.g., context.
Extra Credit Option:
As a reward to students who attend regularly, ask the class to invent a symbol that will appear on
the next test as an extra credit question. Instruct them that they should not reveal the meaning of
the symbol to those who are not in attendance. Alternatively, you can ask the class to make up
an arbitrary word and assign it a meaning. Tell them that as an extra credit item on the next
exam, they will be asked to recall the meaning of this word and that they should not discuss it
with students not in attendance that day.
JOURNAL ITEMS
PANEL IDEA
1. Invite one or more relationship counselors to talk with your class. Ask the guest(s) to
describe common problems in couples’ verbal communication and to explain counseling
methods they use to improve verbal communication between partners in romantic
relationships.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Ask your students which generic term they use to refer to carbonated soft drinks
regardless of brand (the 3 most popular seem to be Soda, Pop, and Coke). If you can,
show them The Great Pop vs. Soda Controversy web page (http://www.popvssoda.com/)
so they can see how uses of the generic terms vary across the country. Ask them if they
have friends or relatives in other parts of the country that use different terms than they do.
How is it that different regions develop different terms for the same things? Can they
think of any other things that are referred to differently in different parts of the country?
2. Break into groups based on gender. Each group should come up with a list of words
describing the opposite gender. List these words on the board. As a class, discuss your
reactions to these words. How do the words shape your interpretations? How would using
different words be interpreted differently?
MOVIE—WINDTALKERS
This movie takes place during WWII, when Navajo Marines are deployed to the frontlines in the
Pacific Theater to use their language as an unbreakable code. The film focuses on the
relationships forged between the Navajos and their fellow Marines who are assigned to protect
them from harm. Students viewing this film should note the arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract
nature of language, not just in terms of the use of language as code, but in terms of the
interactions among the characters.
COMMUNICATION SCENARIOS DVD
Bernadette and Celia were assigned to be roommates a month ago when the school year began.
Both were initially pleased with the match because they discovered commonalities in their
interests and backgrounds. They are both sophomores from small towns, they have similar tastes
in music and television programs, and they both like to stay up late and sleep in on mornings.
Lately, however, Bernadette has been irritated by Celia’s housekeeping—or lack of it! Celia
leaves her clothes lying all over the room. If they cook in, Celia often leaves the pans and dishes
for hours and then it’s usually Bernadette who cleans them. Bernadette feels she has to talk to
Celia about this problem.
1. Identify examples of you-language in this conversation. How would you change it to I-
language?
2. Identify examples of loaded language and ambiguous language.
3. Do you agree with Celia that the problem is Bernadette’s, not hers? Explain your answer.
4. To what extent do Celia and Bernadette engage in dual perspective to understand each
other?
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. Compare and contrast indexing and static evaluation and provide concrete examples of each.
2. Discuss the ownership of your own feelings and thoughts. Describe I/You language and give
specific examples.
3. Discuss the three critical features of language and how these features can help or hinder
effective communication.
4. Discuss the four guidelines given in this chapter that help us use verbal communication with
more clarity and accuracy.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
1. Which is not an example of nonverbal communication? [p. 66, I]
e. posture
2. The verbal symbols we select to use are not intrinsically connected to what they represent.
This is known as __________. [p. 67, I]
a. ambiguity
3. Nathan laughs when his grandfather describes him as a “cool cat.” “That’s how we used to
describe someone who is neat, pleasing, good,” his grandfather says. “Not anymore,” Nathan
e. derivative
4. Words are not the things they represent. In other words, words are __________. [p. 69, I]
a. ambiguous
5. Which is the most abstract term in the following words? [pp. 69–70, III]
e. professional athlete
6. Institutional facts are the meanings we attach to brute facts based on __________. [p. 71, I]
a. objective decisions
7. Which of the following is not a regulative communication rule? [pp. 72–73, III]
a. Children should not interrupt adults.
8. Rachel is surprised when her friend Sarah consistently interrupts her while she is speaking.
Rachel believes her friend should not continually disrupt her. Rachel’s perception of her
friend’s behavior is based on a __________. [p. 73, III]
d. personal construct
e. hypothetical thought
9. Our perception of when a given interaction begins and ends is known as __________. [p. 74,
I]
e. abstraction
10. Negating most of a person by spotlighting a single aspect of his/her identity is known as
__________. [p.76, I]
e. abstraction
11. The statement “we should not let old geezers drive” is an example of __________. [p. 87,
e. abstraction
12. “One day I won’t have to worry about money. One day I’ll make a great salary.” These
statements illustrate __________. [p. 79, III]
a. arbitrary thought
13. Suzy is really upset and she feels like throwing a temper tantrum, even though she’s 20 years
old. Disregarding the social inappropriateness of her behavior, Suzy beats a door and then
kicks it while in a public area. In this instance, Suzy’s behavior was motivated by which
aspect of herself? [p. 75, III]
e. abstract self
14. A technique developed by communication scholars to remind us that our evaluations apply
only to specific times and circumstances refers to which of the following? [p. 84, I]
e. contextual perception
15. Which of the following statements demonstrate that Adam is taking responsibility for his
thoughts and feelings? [pp. 84–88, III]
a. You are really irritating me.
b. You are making me look foolish.
16. To say that language is ambiguous means __________. [p. 68, II]
e. all of the above
17. Brute facts are __________. [p. 71, II]
a. symbolic constructions
18. Communication rules are __________. [p. 72, II]
a. shared understandings about what communication means
19. Constitutive rules __________. [p. 72, II]
e. are mostly inappropriate means of starting arguments
20. Words that slant perceptions are called __________. [p. 77, II]
e. relational communication
TRUE/FALSE
5 // ENGAGING IN NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
I. Definition: Nonverbal communication is all aspects of communication other than words
themselves.
A. Nonverbal communication includes gestures, body language, voice inflection and
volume, environment, and objects.
B. Nonverbal communication is estimated to account for 65% to 93% of the total meaning
of communication.
II. There are 5 principles of nonverbal communication.
A. Nonverbal communication can be ambiguous.
B. Nonverbal behavior can interact with verbal communication in five ways.
1. Nonverbal behaviors may repeat verbal messages.
2. Nonverbal behaviors may highlight aspects of verbal messages.
3. Nonverbal behavior may complement or add to words.
4. Nonverbal behaviors may contradict verbal communication.
5. Nonverbal behaviors can substitute for words.
C. Nonverbal behavior can regulate interaction.
D. Nonverbal behavior can be a powerful tool in establishing relationship-level meanings.
1. Responsiveness is the way we use eye contact, facial expressions, and body posture to
show interest.
2. Liking indicates whether we feel positive or negative about someone.
3. Power is the way we use nonverbal behavior as a means to exert control and negotiate
status.
E. Nonverbal communication reflects cultural values.
1. We learn nonverbal behaviors in the process of being socialized into our culture.
2. Different cultures teach distinct values and nonverbal behaviors to express them.
III. There are nine types of nonverbal communication.