Introduction: Opening the Conversation
Multiple Choice
1. The Industrial Revolution transformed social views of the essence of masculinity from
_____________ to ______________.
A. courage to strength
B. physical strength to ability to earn an income
C. intelligence to physical strength
D. ambition to attractiveness
E. none of the above
2. Wood argues that communication is the fulcrum for change because
A. change comes through communication.
B. communication allows us to identify and challenge cultural views.
C. communication allows us to define alternatives and persuade others.
D. individuals may be powerful social agents for change through communication.
E. All of the above are valid reasons.
3. Heterosexual men and women report being happier and more satisfied with their
relationships when their partners
A. define themselves as feminists.
B. define themselves as nonfeminists.
C. have the same attitudes toward feminism as they do.
D. are unconcerned about feminism.
E. There is no research about relationship satisfaction and feminisms.
4. If we break the word “feminism” down to its roots, femme and –ism, what does it literally
mean?
A. in favor of women
B. superiority of women
C. a political position about women
D. a cultural position about women
E. equality for women
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5. What percentage of seats in the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives are held by
women as of 2012?
A. 50%
B. 30%
C. 10%
D. 25%
E. 17%
True/False
6. Being feminist is in conflict with being feminine.
7. Because our perspectives are limited by our social positions (e.g., sex, class, race, sexual
orientation), we can never fully understand the lives of people who differ from us.
8. The term “feminism” was coined in France in the early 1800s.
9. The author of the textbook agrees that we live in a post-feminist society where gender-based
inequalities generally no longer exist.
10. Terms such as “spouse,” “husband,” “wife,” and “marriage” are inclusive of all people.
11. Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 7-8 of this manual for details
on this activity.
Identification
12. Socially constructed
13. Inclusive language
14. Feminism
Essays
15. Identify and explain why many people do not identify themselves as feminists, even when
their beliefs and values align themselves with those of feminism.
16. Explain what the author of Gendered Lives means when she writes that privilege and
disadvantage are unearned.
17. The author of your textbook talks about privileges and disadvantages that are part of her
social location (and standpoint) that she did not earn and explains how they shape how she sees
the world. Choose one privilege and one disadvantage that is part of your social location and
explain how it shapes how you see the world.
18. The author of your textbook argues that while many believe that we live in a post-feminist
era, in which gendered inequalities have largely been eliminated, we do not in fact live in a
culture of gender equality. What reasons does she use to support her argument?
19. What reasons does the author of your textbook provide for preferring the term “partner” to
terms such as “spouse,” “husband,” or “wife?”
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Chapter 1: The Study of Communication, Gender, and Culture
I. Introduction
A. Media regularly offers advice and commentary on the subject of gender and
communication.
B. Student demand for courses in gender and communication is high.
C. Learning to better understand the relationship between gender, culture, and
communication can be empowering for students personally and professionally.
II. Communication, Gender, and Culture as an Area of Study
A. Research on Gender, Communication, and Culture
1. Since the 1980s, gender, communication, and culture have been growing areas
of interdisciplinary research; in 2006, the first handbook of gender and
communication was published.
2. Research on gender takes place in many academic fields, including
anthropology, communication, sociology, etc.
3. Researchers use a variety of methods and perspectives to study gender.
a. Quantitative research methods use data that can be quantified, or
turned into numerical terms, to draw conclusions.
b. Qualitative research methods look to understand and interpret
experiences that cannot be quantified.
c. Critical research methods examine power dynamics and structures that
lead to inequality in a culture.
d. Mixed research methods combine multiple methodologies and
approaches.
B. Reasons to Learn about Communication, Gender, and Culture: Studying these
topics serves important goals:
1. Learning about gender helps you understand how culture influences our
understandings of masculinity and femininity.
2. Studying gender and cultural communication patterns will help you gain
insight about your own gendered beliefs and communication patterns, so
that you can be aware of how your culture influences your gender and how
you choose to express your own gender identity.
3. Your effectiveness as a communicator will be increased as you learn to
understand and adapt to a diverse variety of communication styles.
III. Gender in a Transitional Era
A. The cultural views of gender are in transition.
B. We often struggle to combine new ideas about gender and equality with traditional
notions of sex and gender.
IV. Differences between Men and Women
A. Pop psychology suggests that men and women are inherently and distinctly
different.
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B. The differences between men and women are not solely biological and natural.
They may also be related to culture, experiences, social class, race, sexual and
orientation.
C. Essentializing occurs when we assume that all members of a group (e.g., all men, all
women) are the same. It ignores individual variations and differences among
members of the same sex. While this text discusses generalizations about women and
men, it is important to remember that there are not essential qualities possessed by all
members of a sex.
D. The differences between sex and gender and the definitions of gender and culture
are important to understanding gender, culture, and communication.
V. Relationships among Gender, Culture, and Communication
A. Sex and gender are related concepts, but are not the same. Being classified as “male”
or “female” is determined by biological characteristics.
1. Sex is based on external genitalia and internal sex organs. These are
determined by chromosomes.
a. Most people have two sex chromosomes, which produce female (XX)
or male (XY) people.
b. For every 10,000 people, 20 do not have XX or XY sex chromosomes,
meaning around 600,000 people in the United States do not have XX
or XY chromosomes.
c. Chromosomes can vary (e.g., XO, XXX, XXY, XYY), which means
biologically, there are actually more than two sexes.
2. Intersexed individuals are born with male and female biological
characteristics. These people used to be called hermaphrodites.
3. Hormones also influence sexual development of male and female sex organs
and how our bodies develop throughout life.
4. Biology is a significant influence on sex, but it does not determine behaviors.
Environment is also an important developmental factor.
B. Gender is a social, symbolic construction that varies across cultures, over time
within a given culture, over the course of individuals’ life spans, and in relation
to the other gender. Gender identity is a personal perception of one’s gender.
1. Gender is neither innate nor stable.
a. We have to learn to behave in gendered ways.
b. Gender varies throughout time, geography, within the individual
person, and within relationships.
2. Cultures create gender by giving social meanings to biological sex.
a. Gender differs from culture to culture.
b. Currently in the United States, masculinity is associated with strength,
ambition, rationality, and emotional control.
c. Currently in the United States, femininity is associated with physical
attractiveness, deferential and nurturing behavior, emotional
expression, and concern with people and relationships.
3. Gender is learned.
a. We are born with our sex (male, female), and we learn our gender
(masculine, feminine).
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b. We learn and express our gender through interactions with others and
with the media.
c. Gender is not strictly personal, but grows out of cultural ideas about
meanings of and expectations about masculinity and femininity.
5. Gender is not stable.
a. Cultural and individual meanings of gender can change over time and
context.
b. New identity labels such as queer and gender queer (people who
reject traditional gender categories) challenge our ideas about gender.
c. Androgynous people are those who possess and display both feminine
and masculine qualities. This concept also helps challenge and change
gender.
6. Gender is affected by our communication. Our meanings of gender change
through our relationships and communication with others.
7. The meanings of gender are arbitrary.
a. Different cultures have drastically different conceptions of masculinity
and femininity.
b. Body ideals for men and women change by time, culture, and
geographic location.
c. Some cultures consider gender to be changeable across the lifespan,
and some recognize more than two genders.
d. The meaning of gender can even change over time in a single culture
or social group.
e. We also see changes in our meanings of gender over the course of our
lifetimes, with our meanings being different as adults than they were
as children.
8. Gender is a relational concept. We can only understand masculinity in
relation to femininity, and vice versa. Changing ideas about one gender affect
the other.
C. Beyond Sex and Gender
1. Sexual orientation refers to the preference one has about romantic and sexual
partners. Sexual orientation, sex, and gender often become conflated in the
United States, but not all gay men, for example, are feminine males. Also,
sexual activity is viewed differently in different cultures. For example, in
some cultures, men have sex with other men as part of their social and
biological development are not considered gay or homosexual.
2. The prefix “cis” (cisgendered, cisman, ciswoman) refers to people for whom
sex, gender, and gender identity are consistent.
3. People who believe the sex they were born is not accurate are called
transgendered people.
4. If a transgendered person takes hormones and/or has surgery to reassign their
sex, we call them transsexual. These people usually refer to themselves as
MTF (male-to-female) or FTM (female-to–male). Most transsexual people
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have the same sexual preferences before and after the surgery (e.g., if they
liked men before, they continue to like men). Recently, Thomas Beatie, an
FTM transman, has been in the news because he decided to give birth to a
baby after transitioning.
5. Transvestites or cross-dressers are people who wear clothing intended for the
other sex. They may dress completely in drag or wear just one or two items.
There are many reasons people cross-dress, and doing so can sometimes be
but is not necessarily an indicator of one’s gender expression, gender identity,
sex, sexual orientation.
D. Culture consists of institutions and practices that sustain a particular social
order by normalizing certain expectations, values, meanings, and patterns of
behavior.
1. Societal views of gender are communicated through interpersonal interactions,
media, cultural traditions, gendered roles, and patterns of interaction within
families, ideology, and practices of institutions.
2. Western culture is patriarchal, which means the dominant ideology,
institutions, and practices were created by men and implicitly value masculine
perspectives and priorities. This results in a pervasive and naturalized view of
the appropriate roles and behaviors for men and women, which we tend to
take for granted. Learning to question these cultural prescriptions for gender
empowers you to choose your own courses of action and identity.
E. Communication is a dynamic, systemic process in which two levels of meaning are
created and reflected in human interaction with symbols.
1. The dynamic nature of communication emphasizes its ongoing nature.
Communication may influence how we think or feel and influence future
interactions. Therefore, communication events do not have precise starting
and ending points.
2. The systems in which communication occurs, such as the situation, time,
participants, and culture, interact so that each part influences the other parts
and what they mean.
3. Communication consists of two levels of meaning.
a. The content level is the literal meaning of a message, which also
implies an appropriate response.
b. The relationship level defines the relationship between the individuals
interacting. The relationship level of meaning is particularly important
in reflecting and affecting how people feel about each other. It also
tells how to interpret the content level of meaning.
4. Meanings are created in the process of human interaction with symbols.
a. Humans are symbol-using creatures.
b. Symbols are abstract, ambiguous, and arbitrary ways of representing
phenomena, which do not have inherent qualities. Meaning does not
exist in words or symbols themselves. We give symbols meaning.
c. Symbolic communication requires reflection and thought for
interpretation.
d. Therefore, humans create meanings through the process of
communicating.
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1. Do you think that your definitions of the genders differ from the expectations and roles that
characterized the period in which your parents were raised? Comment on your perceptions
2. Describe/reflect on: (a) One interaction with your parent(s) or guardian(s) (the earliest you
can remember) that communicated expectations for your gender, and (b) the most recent
interaction with someone who communicated expectations for your gender.
3. Analyze how current institutions sustain gender roles. For example, how have your
experiences within our educational system worked to shape your perceptions of appropriate
gender roles? What are some current judicial or cultural practices that enable gender
inequalities? What are some actions that you and other individuals can take to begin to
empower yourself within our current cultural framework?
4. What do you think you would do if your romantic partner of many years told you that s/he
felt s/he was transgendered? Would you consider staying in the relationship? Would you
consider leaving it? What challenges do you think you would face as a couple? How do
you think your perception of him/her would change? How would your perception of
yourself change? What negative and positive potential outcomes do you perceive would
occur?
5. Reflect on cultural assumptions about gender as they affect your life. If you are a
biological woman, do you conform to norms of femininity? If you are a biological man, do
you conform to norms of masculinity? How do the people around you respond to the ways
you enact your gender? How comfortable are you with the ways you enact your gender?
Suggested Activities
1. Shopping for Gender
Consumer culture plays a central role in the construction of gender. This assignment is
designed to help students begin to see and understand that role. Place students in small
groups and either assign or ask groups to choose a store or set of stores to explore. The
assignment works best if each group chooses a different venue: department stores, malls,
boutiques, box stores, books stores, toy stores, sporting goods stores, grocery stories, card
stores, etc. Groups should spend approximately 30 minutes at their assigned store looking
for messages about gender. Ask students to take notes about the kinds of products
available for boys, girls, women, and men. If they visit a clothing store, tell them to attend
to the color, fabric, and construction of the clothes. For all stores, instruct students to pay
attention to product displays, store layout and decorations, posters, and packaging. Devote
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a class period to discussing the groups’ findings. What messages about gender did the
various stores communicate and how? Were there similarities and differences between the
gendered messages communicated by the different stores? What might those similarities
and differences suggest about gender and age, race, and/or socioeconomic status?
2. Differences, Similarities, and Essentializing
For many of our students, much of the “research” read and heard about gender and sex comes
from pop psychology, and many come into the course expecting to learn about how men and
women communicate as if they are from different planets. Provide the students with a brief
excerpt from John Gray’s book Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus. Chapter 1 of the
book works nicely for this exercise, and the book is usually available at most college libraries.
(Take care to abide by education fair use regulations for copyrighted work. Using only Chapter
1 stays within these guidelines.) Lead a discussion around the following questions:
What of Gray’s claims do you agree with?
What do you disagree with?
Do you think Gray’s descriptions of men and women are consistent with you and those
close to you?
Who do you know who challenges these notions?
Are there any ways in which thinking about men and women in these ways can be
problematic?
The concept of essentializing (i.e., assuming all members of a group are the same) should
underlie this discussion, and if it is not raised by a student, you should introduce it during the
discussion. After examining the discussion questions, students should have an idea of how
essentializing is seen as useful (it helps us organize the world neatly) but also very narrowing
and confining.
3. Exploring Trans Identity
Show the film Ma Vie En Rose (My Life in Pink) about a boy who hopes and thinks he will
grow up to be a girl. The film shows the struggle for him, his family, and his community as
he explores his gender and sexual identity. (The film is rated R, but there is no sex or
violence enacted in the film.) Alternatively, the film Middle Sexes: Redefining He and She,
explores similar issues and includes commentary on gender in many different cultures.
Discuss students’ responses to the film, imagining what it would have been like to be the boy
in the film, his parents, or his neighbor.
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JUDGMENT CALL #1:
WHAT IS FEMINISM
Feminism is a very ambiguous word that means different things to different people. This
has always been true. In the 1800s some people of both sexes saw the first wave of feminism as
a movement for the rights women obviously deserved but had been denied in the United States.
Other women and men saw feminism as an appalling movement that challenged both secular
traditions and divine laws. The second wave of feminism in the United States, which began in
the 1960s, was equally controversial and aroused equally disparate judgments—it was viewed as
a virtuous liberatory movement and a contemptible affront to home, family, and the rightful roles
of man and woman.
Opinions about feminists are every bit as divergent as those about feminism. Feminists
are described as courageous crusaders for civil rights, man-hating bra burners, peace-loving
people, and wreckers of tradition. They are viewed as confident and aggressive, brave and
brazen, and moderate and extremist. There is probably no social movement in America about
which opinions are more divided.
What do you think feminism is? Now that you’ve read about different branches of
feminism, can you create an all-encompassing definition of what it is and what it stands for? The
following website and prompts may help you think about this issue.
To learn how NOW, the most prominent mainstream feminist organization, defines
feminism and feminist issues, go to: http//www.now.org/. Next, use a search engine to find
terms such as “critiques of feminism” and “problems with feminism.”
Identify recurrent criticisms of feminism.
Do these criticisms seem valid in light of the information presented in Chapter 3 of your
textbook?
Do feminists offer responses to the criticisms (for instance, does the NOW website
address any of them)? If so, how do feminists respond?
Having read about many different kinds of feminism, can you identify any themes that
weave through the range of feminisms? What, if anything, is common to the different
branches of feminism in the United States?
Is feminism needed as a movement in the United States today?
Is feminism a social, intellectual, political, or philosophical movement, or is it a
combination of these?
Chapter 1: The Study of Communication, Gender, and Culture
Multiple Choice
1. Rick was born with male and female sex organs. Which of the following is the best term
to describe Rick as a person with biological qualities of a male and a female?
A. transsexuals
B. intersexed
C. transgendered
D. gender rebels
E. dualsexed
2. Which of the following is NOT one of the ways cultures reflect their views of gender?
A. communication within the culture
B. cultural practices
C. cultural institutions
D. biology
E. none of these
3. Which of the following persons would be accurately described as “cisgendered”?
A. a person born as a biological female who embodies both masculine and feminine
characteristics
B. a biological male who prefers romantic and sexual relationships with biological
males
C. a biological female who identifies as female and feminine
D. a biological female who enjoys dressing in men’s clothing
E. a person whose biological sex is inconsistent with their gender identity
4. The meaning of masculinity and femininity in our lives is affected by
A. our age.
B. our race.
C. our interactions with others.
D. the historical time period in which we live.
E. all of the above
5. Research that examines the reasons why working mothers are often forced to return to the
workplace earlier than they want and attempts to change the dynamics of the corporate
world to end these practices would be best served by which research methods?
A. quantitative research methods
B. qualitative research methods
C. mixed research methods
D. critical research methods
E. none of these
6. The term patriarchy literally means
A. oppression of females.
B. from male standpoint.
C. rule by the fathers.
D. government by men.
E. all of the above
7. Which of the following is not one of the current meanings of masculinity in American
culture?
A. emotional engagement
B. strength
C. ambition
D. success
E. rationality
8. Yan Bing and Dianna are college students discussing how they each define “cheating” in
a romantic relationship. Yan Bing considers flirting during an IM conversation cheating,
but Dianna thinks cheating only involves physical contact. Later, they continue the
discussion with friends over dinner. This scenario best describes which of the following?
A. Communication is a dynamic and contextual.
B. Communication is gendered.
C. Yan Bing and Dianna are exhibiting feminine styles of communication.
D. Content level of meaning and relationship level of meaning are not the same thing.
E. All of the above
9. A professor says to a student, “I will not accept your paper after 5 pm today.” The
content level of meaning in this message is that
A. the professor is open to negotiation.
B. the professor feels s/he has to explain the policy to the student.
C. the professor can exercise power over the student.
D. the professor feels s/he has greater status than the student.
E. the professor won’t accept the paper after 5 pm today.
10. Topic or question should come from class business. See pages 7-8 of this manual for
details on this activity.
True/False
11. Gender is a relational concept because masculinity and femininity make sense in
relation to one another.
12. The thinness valued as desirable and beautiful in American culture has always been the
standard for attractiveness in that culture.
13. The Industrial Revolution led to the redefinition of masculinity and femininity.
14. If you were to speak out on campus about sexual assault, you could possibly change the
way your friends conceptualize gendered violence.
15. Hermaphrodite is the preferred word for people who have male and female sex organs.
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16. Androgyny is a term describing individuals who “feel their biological sex is wrong—
that they are really women trapped in men’s bodies or men trapped in women’s
bodies.”
17. There are two distinct genders, female and male.
18. Gender identity is the same thing as one’s biological sex.
19. Most transsexuals experience a change in their sexual orientation after transitioning.
Identification
20. Content and relational levels of meaning
21. Essentializing
22. Sex
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23. Gender
24. Sexual Orientation
25. Symbols
26. Intersexed
27. Transsexual
28. Cisgendered:
29. Patriarchy
30. Transgendered
Essays
31. Popular psychology books often profile the behaviors and characteristics of the
“opposite sexes.” Based on your understanding of material from Chapter 1, how would
you critique this labeling of men and women? Make sure your answer demonstrates your
understanding of essentializing, androgyny, and sex and gender. The framework for the
answer to this essay may be found throughout Chapter 1.
32. The term “cis” has come to be used to designate a person who fits conventional gender
categories. Explain how cis is used and why it is an important word.
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33. Define levels of meaning in communication and provide a concrete example of each level
of meaning.
34. Unlike sex, gender is a relational concept. Explain what this means and the implications
of it, and give an example that illustrates your point.
35. What is the difference between being transgendered and transsexual?
36. Describe three cultural structures and practices that reflect and promote a culture’s views
of gender and sex.
gendered behaviors for us. (3) The judicial system frequently reinforces gendered
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