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130 Instructor’s Manual for Leadership: Theory, Application, Skill Development, 6e

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CHAPTER 7

Leader–Member Exchange and Followership

Chapter Outline

I. From Vertical Dyadic Linkage Theory to Leader-Member Exchange Theory

A. Vertical Dyadic Linkage (VDL) Theory

B. Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

C. Factors that Influence LMX Relationships

D. The Benefits of High-Quality LMX Relationships

E. Criticism of LMX Theory

II. Followership

A. Defining Followership

B. Types of Follower

C. Becoming an Effective Follower

D. Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower

E. Factors that can Enhance Follower Influence

F. Dual Role of Being a Leader and a Follower

III. Delegation

A. Delegating

B. Delegation Decisions

C. Delegating with the Use of a Model

D. Evaluating Followers: Guidelines for Success

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New To This Edition

 Better than 90% percent of the references are new to this edition.

 Learning Outcomes 1 through 4 and 8 are new.

 The opening case has been updated with new references.

 Significant updates and re-writing of key sections and subsections (see below) with new references.

a. We changed the opening section title heading to read as follows: “From Vertical Dyadic Linkage

Theory to Leader-Member Exchange Theory.” We re-directed the discussion away from Evolution

of Dyadic Theory and focused only on VDL and LMX.

b. The sub-section on Team Member Exchange Theory is eliminated from chapter 7 and moved to

Chapter 8 that deals with Team Leadership.

c. The sub-section on Factors that Influence LMX Relationships has been re-written with two new

level 3 headings: The Role of the Leader and The Role of the Follower in Influencing LMX

relationships.

d. We eliminated the sub-section titled “Developing High-Quality LMX Relationships.” The content in

this section is now discussed under the newly created sub-section titled “The Role of the Follower” in

Influencing LMX relationships.

e. The subsection on Strengths and Limitations of LMX Theory has been eliminated. In its place is a

new subsection titled: The Two Main Criticisms of LMX Theory.

f. The sub-section on Determinants of Follower Influence, has been renamed Factors that can

Enhance Follower Influence.

g. The sub-section on Follower Evaluation and Feedback has been renamed Evaluating Followers:

Guidelines for Success.

Lecture Outline

PowerPoint: You may use the PowerPoint supplement to enhance your lectures. Even if your classroom is not

equipped to use PowerPoint, you can review the material on your personal computer to get teaching ideas and to

copy the slides. Copies of the slides can be made into overheads. (Slide 7-1 is chapter title, Slide 7-2 is LOs)

I. FROM VERTICAL DYADIC LINKAGE THEORY TO LEADER-MEMBER

EXCHANGE THEORY (Slide 7-3)

The nature of the exchange relationship between a leader and a follower is that it is one of the most important

relationships for followers.

The quality of the social exchange between a leader and a follower is more predictive of follower outcomes than

traits or behaviors of leaders.

Vertical dyadic linkage (VDL) theory focuses on the notion that the state of the relationship (or linkage) between a

leader and a follower can affect the leadership process.

Learning Outcome (LO) 7-1. Describe the two subgroups that can form under Vertical Dyadic

Linkage Theory.

Leaders develop positive social exchanges with a select subset of followers known as the in-group.

With another subgroup known as the out-group, leaders develop economic-based authority

relationships. Leaders primarily use expert, referent, and reward power to influence members of the

in-group. Out-group members are more likely to be managed according to the requirements of the

employment contract. As long as such compliance is forthcoming, the out-group follower receives the

standard benefits for the job (such as a salary) and no more.

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A. Vertical Dyadic Linkage Theory (Slide 7-4, Dyadic Theory on 7-5 and In-Group/Out-Group on Slide 7-6)

Supporters of Vertical Dyadic Linkage theory believe that leadership is better understood by examining dyads

(pairs of relations) made up of a leader and a follower (a vertical hierarchy) rather than a focus on Average

Leadership Style (ALS), which in effect held that all subordinates are treated equally

A dyad is defined as the individualized relationship between a leader and each follower in a work unit.

Dyadic theory approaches leadership as an exchange relationship which develops between a leader and a

follower over time during role-making activities.

The leader treats followers differently on social or task-related aspects of employment and distributes resources

and rewards differently, leading to the creation of in-groups and out-groups within the work unit.

The in-group includes followers with strong social ties to their leader in a supportive relationship

characterized by high mutual trust, respect, loyalty, and influence.

The out-group includes followers with few or no social ties to their leader, in a strictly task-centered

relationship characterized by low exchange and top-down influence.

WORK APPLICATION 7-1

Recall a work unit or organization you worked at that had both in-groups and out-

groups. Describe some of the ways in which the manager’s behavior and actions

toward in-group and out-group members varied.

Self-Assessment 7-1

Dyadic Relationship with Your Manager

If you want students to complete the Self-Assessment exercises throughout the

book, you may want to tell students and spend a little time talking about them.

Applying the Concept 7-1

In-Groups versus Out-Groups

Answers to the Concept Application questions are at the end of lecture outline.

LO 7-2. Define the two kinds of relationships that can occur between a leader and followers under

Leader-Member Exchange Theory.

Leaders form high-quality social exchanges (based on trust and liking) with some members and low-

quality economic exchanges with others

B. Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory (Slide 7-8 and Discussion Question on Slide 7-7)

We define Leader–member exchange (LMX) as the quality of the exchange relationship between a leader

and a follower.

The underlying assumption of LMX theory is that leaders or superiors have limited amounts of social, personal,

and organizational resources, and as a result tend to distribute them among followers selectively.

Leaders do not always have positive relationships with all followers, which ultimately results in the formation

of LMXs that vary in quality.

Leaders form high-quality social exchanges (based on trust and liking) with some members and low-quality

economic exchanges with others.

The low-quality LMX relationship does not extend beyond the formal employment contract.

Followers in high-quality relationships with the leader will experience positive outcome such as higher job

satisfaction, better performance, lower turnover, greater commitment, creativity, innovation and organizational

citizenship behavior.

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You Make the Ethical Call 7.1

LMX at Work

Answers will vary based on opinion.

APPLYING THE CONCEPT 7-2

From VDL to LMX

Answers to the Concept Application questions are at the end of lecture outline.

LO 7-3. Describe the role of the leader and follower in influencing LMX relationships

The Leader’s Role. The leader’s ability or willingness to develop a working relationship with a follower

that goes beyond an economic-based exchange (which is strictly contractual in nature) to a socially-based

exchange relationship (characterized by friendship, mutual trust, loyalty, and respect between the leader and

the follower) is critical in influencing the LMX relationship. Other factors such as a leader’s resource

strength, span of control and ability to create a supportive work climate or environment will also greatly

influence LMX relationships.

The Follower’s Role. Proactive followers who want to influence LMX relationships with their leaders can

employ tactics such as impressions management, ingratiation and self-promotion.

C. Factors That Influence LMX Relationships (Slide 7-9 and Discussion Question on Slide 7-10)

LMX relationships are based on social exchanges, meaning that there is reciprocity.

According to LMX theory, a leader varies his or her behavior according to the quality of the interpersonal

relationship with each individual.

We will examine the role of the leader and the follower in influencing the exchange relationship.

1. The Role of the Leader: (Slides 7-11 and 7-12)

The leader’s ability or willingness to develop a working relationship with a follower that goes beyond an

economic-based exchange to a socially based exchange relationship (characterized by friendship, mutual

Organizational citizenship behavior is defined as individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or

explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective

functioning of the organization.

WORK APPLICATION 7-2

Recall a work situation in which you were required to do something that was

beyond your employment contract. How did you respond to your manager’s

request, and what consequences did it have on your relationship with him or her?

An underlying assumption of LMX is that due to limited time and social resources, a leader cannot form

With some followers, the leader will develop high-quality LMX relationships (the in-group) and with

A leader’s ability to create a work environment that fosters positive exchange relationships between

A work climate of trust, respect, and openness may provide a setting for positive LMX relationships to

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Social identity is the degree to which members form close social ties with the group and how it

subsequently influences interactions within and between group members.

2. The Role of the Follower: (Slide 7-13 and Slide 7-14 with Discussion Question on Slide 7-15)

A follower’s behavior and attributes influences how the leader and other members perceive such a

follower.

A proactive follower who takes the time to actively seek information and feedback about his or her role

expectations and how to successfully perform them, sets the right tone for forming not just a working

relationship, but a high-quality relationship with the leader.

Effective followers can use these tactics to influence the relationship with their leaders: impressions

management, ingratiation and self-promotion.

Impressions management is a follower’s effort to project a favorable image in order to gain an immediate

benefit or improve a long-term relationship with the leader.

The performance-driven motive is the follower’s genuine attempt to seek information from the leader that

will help improve work performance, while the impressions-driven motive refers to the desire to control

how one appears to the leader.

Ingratiation is the effort to appear supportive, appreciative, and respectful.

Self-promotion is the effort to appear competent and dependable.

WORK APPLICATION 7-3

Recall an occasion when you had the opportunity to make a positive first

impression on your manager. Describe what tactics you employed and their

effects on your manager.

D. The Benefits of High-Quality LMX Relationships (Slide 7-16)

Followers in high-quality relationships with their leader show greater motivation and job performance,

experience lower staff turnover and report higher levels of satisfaction with their leaders.

High-quality LMX employees exhibit greater organizational citizenship behavior.

In return, these followers routinely receive higher performance ratings on their job evaluations compared to

followers in n low-quality LMX relationships.

The leader can influence follower behavior with rewards such as helping with a follower’s career by

recommending promotion, pay raises, giving special favors (bigger office, better work schedule) and greater

participation in decision making.

In return for these benefits, members in high-quality LMX relationships have certain obligations and

expectations beyond those required of members in low-quality LMX relationships.

In high-quality LMX relationships, members are expected to be loyal to the leader, to be more committed to

task objectives, to work harder, and to share some of the leader’s administrative duties.

It is evident that high-quality LMX relationships create a reciprocal exchange.

The leader cannot resort to coercion or heavy-handed influencing approaches without endangering the quality of

the relationship.

It is under such situations that followers are said to have earned social capital.

Social Capital is defined as the set of resources that inheres in the structure of relations between members of

the group, which helps them get ahead.

WORK APPLICATION 7-4

Think of a leader you’ve had or now have a very positive high-quality relationship

with. Describe some of the work related benefits you received that can be directly

or indirectly tied to your relationship with this leader/supervisor.

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Self-Assessment 7-2

In-Group and Out-Group

If you want students to complete Self-Assessment exercises throughout the

book, you may want to tell students and spend time talking about them.

LO 7-4. Discuss the main Criticisms of LMX Theory.

The main criticisms of LMX theory are measurement issues and attribution bias and its predictive power.

The main instrument for measuring LMX quality is the LMX-7. A criticism of LMX-7 is that it determines

the quality of the exchange relationship solely from the follower’s perspective. The leader’s input is not

taken into account. A second criticism of LMX is its attribution bias in favor of in-group members. Given

the variability in a leader’s treatment of in-group and out-group members, it is quite possible that a leader’s

favorable impressions towards in-group members may well translate into favorable performance evaluations

and feedback for such members. Finally, there have been criticisms of the predictive power of LMX theory.

For example, the research evidence on staff turnover is mixed at best and reservations about the

performance measures used.

E. Criticisms of LMX Theory (Slide 7-17)

LMX-7 measures the quality of the exchange relationship only from the perspective of the follower.

Although leader behaviors and perceptions, follower characteristics, interpersonal relationship characteristics,

and contextual variables represent significant groups of LMX antecedents, leader variables explained the most

variance in LMX quality.

Another criticism of LMX is attribution bias in favor of some group members.

This inherent bias in the system raises questions of fairness and equality in the treatment of all employees.

Finally, there have been criticisms of the predictive power of LMX theory.

Self-Assessment 7-3

Your LMX Relationship with Your Manager

If you want students to complete the Self-Assessment exercises throughout the

book, you may want to tell students and spend a little time talking about them.

II. FOLLOWERSHIP

Past leadership research has been criticized for being too “leader-centric”. However, like leadership, good

followership is increasingly being recognized as an important component for strong organizational performance.

Good followership is about ‘upward influencing.’

A. Defining Followership (Slide 7-18)

Followership is not the same as following.

Following is reacting (consciously or unconsciously) to a leader’s orders.

In contrast, followership is a self-conscious choice of the follower in the context of his or her relationship to the

nominal leader.

Issues of rank and authority play little or no role in such a choice.

Followers are in control of the situation by the choices they make.

Followership refers to the behavior of followers that result from the leader–follower mutual influencing

relationship.

A follower is a person who is under the direct influence and authority of a leader.

Effective leadership requires effective followership.

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Kelley and Chaleff are two early pioneers who brought focus to the role of followers in the leadership process.

No work unit or organized effort can succeed and be sustained without followers; this, according to Kelley, is

the power of followership.

Note: You may want to discuss Exhibit 7-1 to understand how the two types of behaviors help define each

follower type. (Slide 7-19 holds Exhibit 7.1)

LO 7-5. Describe the two behaviors used in the Kelley Model and the resulting five follower types.

Using a combination of two types of behavior—independent critical thinking and level of involvement in

organizational affairs—Kelley groups followers into five categories. The independent critical thinking

variable is on a continuum from low to high and the level of involvement on a continuum from low to high

as well. The five basic follower types are: alienated, passive, conformist, pragmatic, and effective follower.

B. Types of Followers (Slides 7-20 and 7-22 with a Discussion Question on Slide 7-21)

Some of the names that have been used to describe different types of followers include isolates, bystanders,

participants, activists, and diehards.

The best conceptualization of follower types is Kelley’s model.

Using a combination of two types of behavior—independent critical thinking and level of involvement in

organizational affairs—Kelley groups followers into five categories based on their specific behavioral mix.

5. The alienated follower is someone who is low on involvement yet is high on critical thinking.

6. The conformist follower is someone who is high on involvement but low on critical thinking.

7. The passive follower is someone who is neither high on critical thinking nor involvement.

8. The effective follower is someone who is high on critical thinking and involvement.

9. The pragmatic follower exhibits a little of all four styles—depending on which style fits the prevailing

situation.

o On the positive side, when an organization is going through desperate times, the pragmatic follower

C. Becoming an Effective Follower (Slide 7-23)

How individuals see their role as followers informs how they function.

While some individuals socially construct follower definitions around passivity, deference and obedience,

others emphasize the importance of constructively questioning and challenging their leaders.

To be effective as a follower, it is important to acquire the skills necessary to combine two opposing follower

roles—namely, to execute decisions made by a leader, and to raise issues about those decisions when they are

deemed misguided or unethical.

This is often referred to as “speaking truth to power.”

The effective follower has a high self-efficacy compared to the ineffective follower.

Self-efficacy is defined as a person’s beliefs in his or her capabilities to produce at a certain level of

performance.

How followers perceive a leader plays a critical role in their ability to help the leader grow and succeed.

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Just as leaders make attributions about follower competence, followers make attributions about leader

competence and intentions.

Followers assess whether the leader’s primary motivation is more for his or her personal benefit or career

advancement than for their own welfare and the organization’s well-being.

Credibility is increased and follower commitment is enhanced when the leader makes self-sacrifices to gain

support for his or her ideas, rather than imposing on followers.

Leaders, who appear insincere, or motivated only by personal gain, create an atmosphere in which integrating

the two opposing follower roles is impossible.

Self-Assessment 7-4

Effective Followers

If you want students to complete the Self-Assessment exercises throughout the

book, you may want to tell students and spend a little time talking about them.

D. Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower (Slide 7-24 holds Exhibit 7.2 and Discussion Question on Slide 7-25)

Exhibit 7.2 presents nine guidelines for effective followership.

1. Offer Support to Leader

 A good follower looks for ways to express support and encouragement to a leader who is encountering

resistance in trying to introduce needed change in his or her organization.

2. Take Initiative

 Effective followers take the initiative to do what is necessary without being told, including working

beyond their normally assigned duties.

3. Counsel and Coach the Leader When Appropriate

 Contrary to the myth that leaders have all the answers, most people now recognize that followers also

have opportunities to coach and counsel leaders, especially when a leader is new and inexperienced.

4. Raise Issues and/or Concerns When Necessary

 When there are potential problems or drawbacks with a leader’s plans and proposals, a follower’s

ability to bring those issues or concerns to light is critical.

5. Seek and Encourage Honest Feedback from the Leader

 Effective followers encourage the leader to point out the strongest and weakest aspects of their work so

they can do better.

6. Clarify Your Role and Expectations

 Followers should be assertive but diplomatic about resolving role ambiguity and conflict.

7. Show Appreciation

 Although some may argue that praising a leader is a form of ingratiation easily used to influence the

leader, when sincere, it can help to build a productive leader–follower exchange relationship.

8. Keep the Leader Informed

 Accurate and timely information enables a leader to make good decisions and to have a complete

picture of where things stand in the organization.

9. Resist Inappropriate Influence of Leader

 Effective followers challenge the leader in a firm, tactful, and diplomatic way. It is important to

challenge such behavior early, before it becomes habitual, and to do it without personal hostility.

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WORK APPLICATION 7-5

Give examples of how you, or someone you worked with, employed some of the

suggested guidelines to becoming an effective follower.

CONCEPT APPLICATION 7-3

Guidelines to Becoming an Effective Follower

Answers to the Concept Application questions are at the end of lecture outline.

E. Factors that can Enhance Follower Influence (Slide 7-26 and Exhibit 7.3 on Slide 7-27)

LO 7-6. Briefly describe the three factors than can enhance a follower’s influence.

The three follower influencing characteristics are: (1) Relative power position—leaders need to realize

that followers also have the power to influence them. (2) Locus of control—followers can have an

internal or external locus of control, based on their belief about who is the master of their destiny. Thus,

leader–member exchanges should be different based on locus of control. (3) Education and experience—

leaders need to realize that followers may have different levels of education and experience, and that

they need to supervise them differently.

The three determining factors that have been found to distinguish influential followers from their peers are:

follower’s relative power position, locus of control, and education and experience.

1. Power Position

 Some followers may have personal, referent, expert, information, and connection-based sources of

2. Locus of Control

Locus of control is on a continuum between an external and internal belief over who has control of a

person’s destiny.

 People who believe they are “masters of their own destiny” are said to have an internal locus of

3. Education and Experience

 Followers with valuable skills and experience may be able to use their expert power to influence other

followers and even the leader.

WORK APPLICATION 7-6

Recall a work-related incident when you felt more qualified to do the job than

your boss because of your education and experience. Describe how this

characteristic enabled you to influence your boss.

CONCEPT APPLICATION 7-4

Determinants of Follower Influence

Answers to the Concept Application questions are at the end of lecture outline.

F. Dual Role of Being a Leader and a Follower (Slide 7-29 and Discussion Question on Slide 7-28)

Regardless of one’s position in an organization, we are all in a follower role to someone else.

It is not at all uncommon to switch between being a leader and being a follower several times over the course of

a day’s work.

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III. DELEGATION (Slide 7-30)

Delegation is the process of assigning responsibility and authority for accomplishing objectives.

A. Delegating

A leader should delegate work when:

 there is not enough time to attend to priority tasks,

 when followers desire more challenges and opportunities,

 and when the tasks match follower skill levels and experiences.

1. Benefits of Delegation (Slide 7-31)

 When managers delegate, they have more time to perform high-priority tasks.

 Delegation gets tasks accomplished and increases productivity.

 Delegation trains employees and improves their self-esteem.

 Delegation eases the stress and burden on managers.

 By delegating responsibilities, leaders can focus on doing a few tasks well instead of many tasks less

effectively.

 From the organization’s perspective, delegating can result in increased performance and work

outcomes.

2. Obstacles to Delegation (Slide 7-32)

 Managers become used to doing things themselves.

 Managers fear that employees will fail to accomplish tasks.

 Managers believe they can perform tasks more efficiently than others.

 Some managers don’t realize that delegation is an important part of their job, others don’t know what

to delegate, and some don’t know how to delegate.

3. Signs of Delegating Too Little (Slide 7-33)

 Taking work home.

 Performing employee tasks.

 Being behind in work.

 A continual feeling of pressure and stress.

 Rushing to meet deadlines.

 Requiring that employees seek approval before acting.

WORK APPLICATION 7-7

Describe an obstacle to delegation, or sign of delegating too little, that you have

observed on the job.

B. Delegation Decisions (Slide 7-34)

LO 7-7. List five things a leader should delegate.

A leader should delegate paperwork, routine tasks, technical matters, tasks with developmental potential,

and employee problems.

1. What to Delegate

As a leader, you should delegate anything that you don’t have to be personally involved with because of

your unique knowledge or skill. Some possibilities include the following:

 Paperwork

 Routine tasks

 Technical matters

 Tasks with developmental potential

 Employees’ problems