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Chapter 12
CHOOSING EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE
This chapter provides a blend of theory and application in a way that most students enjoy. I like
socio-linguistics and was fascinated with Raymond Gozzi’s book New Words and a Changing American
Culture; I believe that language is a perfect diversity topic. Language has ethical implications because
of its potential to include or exclude, to clarify or confuse, to insult or affirm. One way I address
linguistic diversity is to ask a bilingual student to prepare and deliver a speech in her or his native
language with an interpreter translating into English.
Chapter Goals
At the end of this chapter your students should be able to:
•
Explain how words are linked to culture and meaning
•
Understand the denotative meaning of words including jargon
•
Define connotative meanings of words including epithets and euphemisms
•
Distinguish between the oral and written style in language
•
Choose language that is concise, familiar, concrete, repetitive, vivid, powerful, and appropriate
•
Use ethical language that is inclusive and positive about groups and individuals
•
Give guidelines for listening and speaking in linguistically diverse contexts
At the end of this chapter you should be able to:
•
Better understand nonnative speakers of English, if you’re not already familiar with language
issues. Research Note 12.2: “Students Who Aren’t Native English Speakers” in Supplemental
Resources provides explanations and suggestions for dealing with linguistic issues.
Chapter Outline
I.
Languages are verbal codes made up of symbols that a community of language speakers use
to share their ideas, reflect culture.
A.
Words are the names we give cultural memories or things significant enough to name.
1.
Our vocabularies form our interpretations of the world, creating our social realities.
2.
We create names for tangible and less tangible things.
3.
Languages change as cultures are transformed, and the enormous cultural changes of
the last half-century have produced thousands of new words.
4.
Denotative meanings are what the word names or identifies.
a.
Ambiguous words stand for more than one idea; their meaning depends on the
context.
b.
Be sure to use the correct word for the context.
c.
Jargon denotes specialized or technical words that serve special groups or
cultures of people.
5.
Connotative meanings are the emotional overtones that groups or persons associate
with a word.
a.
Epithets describe some quality of a person or group, often with negative
connotations.
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b.
Euphemisms substitute an inoffensive term for an offensive or embarrassing
term.
II.
Effective language falls under the realm of the canon of style.
A.
Adopt an oral style.
B.
Be concise.
1.
Eliminate verbiage in the U.S., which values directness.
2.
Other cultural groups may value flowery words and language.
C.
Use familiar words.
D.
Choose specific
concrete words
instead of abstract
vague words
.
E.
Build in
repetition
.
1.
Speakers often repeat words, but reverse them in a second phrase, which is called
antimetabole.
F.
Be interesting by using colorful, vivid language.
1.
Alliteration uses words beginning with the same sound.
2.
Rhymes are words that end in the same sounds; use rhymes throughout the speech.
3.
Metaphors are implied comparisons that speak of one thing as being another; mixed
metaphors begin with one comparison and end with another.
4.
Similes also compare things that are alike in at least one essential detail; however, they
explicitly state the connection in the word like or as; archetypal symbols emerge again
and again.
5.
Personification gives human characteristics to nonhuman entities.
G.
Use appropriate forms for the culture of your audience.
1.
The situation of influences your linguistic choices.
21. Dialect may be appropriate for some audiences, out of line for others.
II.
When you speak, you want to use powerful language.
1.
Powerful language is straightforward, direct, and to the pint without a lot of
hesitations.
2 Powerless language can give you the impression that you lack confidence in yourself
or what you are saying.
a.
Hedges, like “sort of,” make you seem less sure of yourself.
b.
Tag questions, like “isn’t it?,” invite the audience to agree with your
conclusion.
c.
When you use disclaimers, the audience forms doubts about your credibility.
III.
Using
inclusive language
is a way to use words ethically.
A.
Chose inclusive terminology.
1.
Racist language privileges one racial or ethnic group over others.
2.
Ageist language demeans or devalues age and privileges youth.
3.
Sexist
language privileges men over women.
4.
Nonparallel language
does not treat men and women the same; it privileges men.
B.
Present people and groups positively.
1.
Avoid using
dismissive language
.
2.
Mention differences only when they matter.
IV.
In pluralistic audiences, students enter classrooms with many types of linguistic diversity,
including monolingual, didialectical, multidialectical, bilingual, and/or multilingual.
A.
Speakers should adapt to multilingual situations.
1.
A speaker must adapt by using several strategies.
a.
Analyze the words and jargon a nonnative speaker of English might find confusing.
b.
Choose simple words without talking down.
c.
Write potentially confusing words on visual aids.
d.
Define difficult and jargon terms throughout.
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e.
Build in redundancy or repetition by repeating strategic information.
2.
Listeners should have patience and
perspective taking
.
a.
Be positive; expect to understand the speech.
b.
Listen all the way through; take notes to help wandering attention.
c.
Assume responsibility in co-creating meaning by giving nonverbal feedback.
d.
Control negative emotional responses.
e.
Don’t laugh, even if the speaker does.
B.
Adapting to an interpreter involves a number of techniques or skills.
1.
Use simple, common words.
2.
Provide the interpreter with an outline in advance of the speech.
3.
Speak in short units, allow the interpreter to speak after a sentence or two.
3.
Look at the interpreter when she or he is speaking.
4.
Shorten a speech that’s being translated into another language.
Suggested Videos
Kindergarten Cop Show the clip where Arnold Schwarzenegger’s class of kindergarten children
recites the Gettysburg Address in a school program. Discuss some of the vivid language
(especially repetition) in Lincoln’s speech.
Inaugural Address: John Kennedy A script of this speech is widely available on Great Speeches
Collections videos. This speech is especially famous for the use of antimetabole. You can listen
to the audio or watch the video on www.americanrhetoric.com.
•
Identify the element of vividness you want to emphasize.
•
Show the clip, asking students to focus on the language in it.
•
Discuss their observations. (comprehension, application)
Discussion Topics
Words and meanings (p. 150) Gozzi says that we name the things in our culture that we notice and
consider important enough to label. Several years ago a book called Sniglets came out. The
authors argued that some important things weren’t named, but they should be, and they set out
to label them. Three that I can remember are “furnidents” — those little indentations in the carpet
that remain long after you remove the chair; “rov-alert,” the system that all dogs (Rover) use to
join the chain of barking that usually starts about 1:00 a.m.; and “kawashocki,” the startled
response you have when you pull into a parking place and realize that a motorcycle is already
there. Use www.google.com and search for the word “sniglets.” You’ll get over 107,000 hits with
lots of funny words; one good site is http://bertc.com/sniglets.htm
Introduce your students to these sniglets or others you create or find online, and invite them
to label objects or events that they’ve noticed that don’t have names. Here’s a starter list:
•
The phenomenon that whenever you get into a check-out line behind only one person, that
person will inevitably take five times as long as normal.
•
The generation born after Generation X. (This group is still being named.)
•
The feeling you have after you work hard on a paper and get two grades lower than you
expect. (synthesis)
Diversity in Practice: Dialects (p. 152) Dialects like ebonics, “Spanglish” and Creole are well
known, but fewer people think of differences in slang terms from city to city or region to
region. (My New York students laughed when I talked about a “can of pop;” in contrast,
Oregonians rarely ask for a “soda.”) The suggested Internet sites in this box make for
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fascinating reading. Visit the site sponsored by the American Dialect Association when you
prepare for teaching this chapter. Refer students to Exercise 2 in the Application Exercises (p.
25 in the text) for more about ebonics. (comprehension, application)
Diversity and Language You’ll find many interesting topics relating to diversity in this chapter—
among them are jargon, epithets, inclusive language, and language and pluralistic audiences.
Seriously consider asking at least one bilingual student to deliver a speech using an
interpreter. (comprehension, application)
Think Critically about Denotative and Connotative Words (pp. 150-152) Have students list the
names for popular brands of perfume. (Identify both “male” and “female” perfume names.)
Then, in groups or as a whole group identify connotations for various brands. For example,
to me, “Brut” (for men) connotes roughness, an untamed quality; in contrast, “Obsession”
(for women) connotes clinging, passion, need, single minded devotion.
•
Explore the subtle way that connotations can create unrealistic images of men or women.
For instance, which, if any, fragrances for men appeal to their nurturing side? Do any
suggest that they would cling to a woman?
•
In contrast, which, if any, women’s fragrances suggest that women are in control and
strong?
•
Refer to the section, “Use Language Ethically: Inclusive Language,” and ask what
qualifies as sexist language. Are perfume ads sexist? (comprehension, application,
analysis)
Ethics in Practice: Ban Bossy? (p. 159) Ask students to read the feature, and, working in groups,
to answer the discussion questions that follow.
Vivid Language (pp. 156-157) Several strategies or exercises work well with this content:
•
Use one or more of the speeches in the Great Speeches series (see Suggested Videos) to
highlight vivid imagery and memorable language.
•
With the class choose one paragraph of an article from the New York Times or a magazine
such as the New Yorker or Time for instances of colorful language choices.
•
Activity 13.2: “Use of Imagery” and Activity 13.3: “Eliminate Clutter” are appropriate
with this section. (comprehension, analysis)
Adapt to Multilingual Situations
(pp. 160-161) Exercise #3 in
Critical Thinking Exercises
supplements this section.
Critical Thinking Exercises
(See p. 162 of the textbook for Critical Thinking Exercises)
Application Exercises
(See p. 163 of the textbook for Application Exercises)
Internet Activities
You can access instructor’s resources at http://www.cengage.com/us/. You will need your instructor’s
access code. Students and instructors may also go to MindTap to find a broad range of resources that
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will help students better understand the material in the chapter, complete assignments, and succeed
on tests. MindTap also features speech videos with critical viewing questions, speech outlines, and
transcripts.
Supplemental Resources
•
Research Note 12.1: Women and Language
•
Research Note 12.2: Students Who Aren’t Native English Speakers
•
Teaching Idea 12.1: Gender Differences in Speaking
•
Handout Material: Japanese Women’s Speech
Research Note 12.1: Women and Language
Background Information: Writer Ursula Le Guin1 describes the “mother tongue” as the language
used in private settings to discuss personal, everyday, down-to-earth matters. She contrasts this to
the “father tongue”—the language of institutions, of the public world of work.
Other researchers have explored the relationship of language usage to the speaker’s credibility.
In a U.S. courtroom2 researchers examined kinds of language that jurors judged as credible,
competent, intelligent, and influential on their judgments. This they termed powerful language. In
contrast, jurors judged powerless language negatively. In general, powerful language is direct, while
powerless language includes elements that take away from its forcefulness. Hedges, tag questions,
intensifiers, and use of hyperbole characterize it.
Women tend to use more “powerless” techniques.3 Some scholars argue that they seek to
maintain relationships in their communication. “Powerless” techniques, rather than being a liability,
are thus an asset that allows women to keep conversations open and to include others.4 However, in
contexts such as public speaking, speakers should be aware of potential negative response to
language choices.
Hedges Instead of using direct declarative sentences, speakers soften their assertions by adding
words that make them appear less certain. For instance, instead of saying, “This product is good,” the
speaker adds a hedge, “This product is sort of good.” Or instead of, “The University of Texas won the
national championship in their 2006 Rose Bowl win,” there is a hedge, “The University of Texas won
the national championship . . . , if I remember correctly.” In the first sentences, the speaker sounds
confident; in the second sentences he or she appears tentative and unsure.
It is common for student speakers to hedge on pronunciations of words, “The man was
diagnosed with vilitigo, or however you pronounce it.” These hedges take away credibility, making
them appear unprepared.
1 U. Le Guin. (1989). Dancing at the edge of the world: Thoughts on words, women, places. New York: Grove
Press.
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2 W. O’Barr. (1982). Linguistic evidence: Language, power, and strategy in the courtroom. New York:
Academic Press.
3 See R. Lakoff. (1975). Language and woman’s place. New York: Harper and Row; M. R. Key. (1975).
Male/female language. Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press; D. Spender. (1980). Man made language.
(1980). London: Routledge & Kegan Paul; L. A. Hosman. (1989). The evaluative consequences of
hedges, hesitations, and intensifiers. Human Communication Research, 15, 383-406.
4 For a good summary of women’s speech patterns, see J. T. Wood. (2001). Gendered lives:
Communication, gender, and culture, 4th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
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Tag questions Speakers soften their words by attaching or tagging a question onto the end of their
assertion, as if asking, for audience agreement. Polish sociolinguist Anna Wierzbicka says that tags
are typical of Polish speech, and they reflect a “deep-rooted habit of acknowledging possible
differences between individual points of view.”5
Tag questions are easy to spot in interpersonal communication, in statements such as this: “It’s a
beautiful day, isn’t it?” Or, “This is the best proposal, don’t you think?” One tag question commonly
heard in classroom speeches is, “OK?”
Intensifiers Intensifiers are additions of words such as “really,” “very,” and “totally” that intensify
the emotion expressed in the sentence. “She is a candidate worthy of your vote” is more emotionally
intense when you add two words, “She is an awesome candidate who is truly worthy of your vote.”
Women tend to use more intensifiers than men.
Hyperbole The text discusses the use—and possible misuse—of hyperbole.
Research Note 12.2. Students Who Aren’t Native English Speakers
Four dimensions of language pose problems for nonstandard speakers of English: phonetics,
semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.
Phonetics Phonemes are the basic units of sound of a spoken language. Students substitute, distort,
and omit phonemes. For example, they say dis for this, beard for bird, reev for live. Deaf students
typically delete sounds that are not clearly visible such as k, t, s, ch, sh, and r.
Many Asian languages are composed of consonant-vowel (C-V) combinations, while English is
typically made up of C-V-C words and syllables. Consequently, some foreign students tend to omit
final consonants. Example: “I wih go to suhkooh foh te moh yea” (I will go to school for ten more
years).
Additionally, students with neurological impairments such as cerebral palsy and cranio-facial
malformations such as cleft palate may pronounce words differently. Stutterers repeat or prolong
initial sounds.
•
Suggestions Advise students to take a course such as “Voice and Articulation” before taking the
public speaking course. Paraphrase the student’s message for the others in the class.
Syntax The rules for the orderly placement of words in relationship to one another is called syntax,
and each language has different rules for the ordering of ideas. For instance, “For native land our
great with courage fight we,” is a sensible word order in Latin syntax, while it is nearly
incomprehensible in English. A foreign student might say, “I not go my country three year.”
Syntax also includes the rules of grammar. For example, “I seen it” does not follow the formal
rules for word order considered to be “correct” in Standard English. (However, “I seen”
communicates the same idea, and many people use this phrase informally or in other dialects of
English—it is nonstandard, not “bad” speech.)
Foreign students often fail to add an “s” to plurals, possessives, and third person singular verbs.
Example: “My two daughters enjoy playing on the grasses.”
•
Suggestions On the written critique form, write the standard grammatical form. Advise students
to take courses to improve their skills in Standard English grammar.
5 A. Wierzbicka. (1991). Cross cultural pragmatics: The semantics of human interaction. Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter. p. 37.
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Semantics Semantics is the study of the meanings of words. As Chapter 4 pointed out, some people
know more words than others, and some students have smaller vocabularies than others.
Furthermore, there are often other layers of meaning implied by a single term. Example in the text:
the Japanese student said, “the car door was distorted,” rather than “dented” or “caved in.” Idioms
often cause difficulties in understanding.
•
Suggestions Be alert for nonverbal cues that students are confused. Define words that may cause
problems; explain idioms and colloquialisms that might be misunderstood.
Pragmatics The study of how people actually use language in various contexts is called pragmatics.
Language operates in a social and a psychological world at any given time, meaning that the
identities of the participants, the time and place in which they meet, the beliefs, knowledge, and
intentions they have all contribute to meaning.
For example, native speakers of a language can detect whether a speaker saying, “Pragmatics
fascinates me,” is being sarcastic when the speaker says the sentence using the cultural patterns
meaning “sarcasm.” Foreign students would be more likely to take the statement literally.
One way pragmatic issues enter a classroom is in the cultural patterns for question and answer
sequences. Many co-cultural groups such as Native Americans and African Americans have different
question and answer sequences than Euro-American patterns. Also, Asian patterns typically differ.
•
Suggestions Direct requests for information may be less successful than open-ended questions
(“What did you think about . . .?”) or invitations to participate (“Give me an example of . . . “).
B.
B. Whaley, J. M. Yingling, & A. Langlois. (1991, October 31-November 3). Diverse student
populations in the basic course: Speech and language production essentials for instructors. Paper
presented at the Speech Communication Association. Atlanta, Georgia.
C.
Morris. (1946). Signs, language, and behavior. New York: George Braziller.
Teaching Idea 12.3: Gender Differences in Speaking
Purpose: To highlight gender differences in language usage by presenting an example from another
culture.
Procedure: Duplicate and distribute copies of “Traditional Japanese Women’s Speech” found on the
following page. Have students read it then discuss the differences the author mentions. [Note that
globally, cultures are changing at a rapid pace, and many contemporary young Japanese women use
both the masculine and feminine forms.]
Ask students if any of them come from speech communities where there are differences between
masculine and feminine speech patterns. If so, what differences exist? Elicit cultural reasons that
might explain such linguistic variation. (Examples: different traditional role expectations for men and
women, public and private spheres of influence, etc.)
Then discuss gender variations in the U.S. You’ll find some gender differences discussed in
Research Note 13.1 (above) and in Appendix A in the text.
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Handout
Traditional Japanese Women’s Speech
Sex differences in speech are well documented in many of the world’s languages.
Scholars often cite Japanese in demonstrating these differences, as several aspects
of
traditional Japanese women’s speech vary from forms used by Japanese men.
Throughout their educational years, Japanese boys and girls learned to speak
in different ways. Although all were taught polite, more formal usages, Japanese
females were taught to use more of these forms. In addition, women were
supposed to use more indirect ways of saying things than men. For example, men
could say “boku” for “I,” while women were to use “watashi,” a more polite, less
direct form that either sex could use, but women should use.
Women also learned to soften statements with “kashira” (I wonder) or “wa”
(don’t you think?). For instance, a man could say, “Samuji yo,” which means “It’s
cold, I say.” Women, however, should say “Samui wa,” which translates as “It’s
cold, don’t you think?”
Men could use the suffix “
–
kun” when they address one another. This suffix
has a backslapping, locker room type of connotation that is a familiar greeting to
other men. It was not appropriate for women to use this term when addressing
men. Instead, they used the suffix “–san.”
Speaking norms are changing in Japan; now many women use a combination
of masculine and feminine forms. However, the
New York Times
(1991) reported
that there is still a great deal of pressure for women to use less assertive linguistic
forms. This affects their ability to share equal status and to be on familiar terms
with their male colleagues.
Rudolph, E. (1991, Sept. 1).Women’s talk. The New York Times Magazine. p. 8.