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CHAPTER 09
Nonverbal Communication: Messages
of Action, Space, Time, and Silence
OVERVIEW
Chapter Nine focuses on the role of nonverbal communication in intercultural communication.
The chapter begins by emphasizing the importance of nonverbal communication, followed by the
functions, definition, and caveats of studying the concept. The relevance firmly established, the
remaining sections of the chapter focus on exploring different classifications of nonverbal
communication including: appearance, gestures, posture, facial expression, eye contact, touch
and paralanguage. The chapter also includes a discussion of cultural variation in the use of
space, terrritory, time, and silence.
OUTLINE
I. Defining nonverbal communication
II. Intentional and unintentional messages
III. Verbal and nonverbal messages
IV. Functions of nonverbal communication
A. Conveying internal states
B. Creating identity
C. Regulating interaction
D. Substituting for words
V. Studying nonverbal communication
A. Nonverbal communication is a multichannel activity
A. Nonverbal communication is often ambiguous
B. Numerous variables influence nonverbal communication
VI. Nonverbal communication and culture
VII. Classifications of nonverbal communication
A. Messages of the body
B. Appearance
1. Judgment of beauty
2. Skin color
3. Attire
C. Body movement
1. Posture
2. Gestures
3. Facial expressions
4. Eye contact and gaze
5. Touch
6.Scent
7. Paralanguage
D. Space and distance
1. Personal space
2. Seating
3. Furniture arrangement
E. Time
1. Informal time
2. Monochromic (M-time) and polychromic (P-time)
F. Silence
VIII. Developing nonverbal communication competency
A. Your interpretations should be tentative
B. Be conscious of the content
C. Utilize feedback
D. Know your culture
E. Monitor your nonverbal actions
IX. Summary
ACTIVITIES
Activity 9-1: Intentionality in communication
This activity addresses the debate between the intentional and unintentional nature of
communication. It asks students to determine the level of intentionality in three scenarios. Divide
the class into groups of four to six students. Give each group one of the following scenarios on a
piece of paper and have students answer the questions that follow each scenario.
Scenario #1:
A man is sitting on a park bench reading the newspaper, and a couple is kissing and hugging on
the grass nearby. An old man talking to himself also sits nearby. None of the people seems to
notice one another.
• Is communication taking place here?
• Are there any messages being sent intentionally? Unintentionally?
• Who (if anyone) is sending messages to whom? What (if any) messages are being
sent?
• Is the man reading the newspaper decoding any messages? Or is he an unaffected
observer?
• Is the man reading the newspaper sending any messages to the couple and the old
man?
• Is it possible not to react to the behavior of those around us?
Scenario #2:
A businessman is walking down a street in New York. A homeless person asks him if he has any
spare change. The man looks straight ahead, does not react, and continues walking down the
street. Another woman walking behind the businessman, however, quickly puts a handful of
change into the homeless man’s cup. The homeless man thanks the woman. The businessman
quickly glances back, frowns at the woman, and then continues down the street.
• Identify the intentional and unintentional messages being sent.
• Who (if anyone) are the intentional and unintentional receivers?
• Is the businessman reacting to the homeless man’s behavior? How do you know?
• How is the businessman decoding the woman’s behavior? How do you know?
• How is the woman decoding the businessman’s behavior? How do you know?
• What messages (if any) are being sent to the homeless man?
• How do you react to requests for money from homeless people? How do you
decode the reactions of others toward the homeless?
Scenario #3:
A student is giving a speech to her classmates. Two minutes into the speech a student in the front
row appears to fall asleep. Another student is doodling on her notebook in the back of the room.
In the second row, a student appears to be listening intently but is actually thinking about the
exam he has next class. After the speech, the speaker commented on how rude some of the
students in the class had been during her speech. The student who had fallen asleep and the one
who had been doodling defended themselves by saying that they were not being rude because
they had been listening the whole time.
Activity 9-2: Exploring paralanguage
This activity offers insight into the influence of vocal characteristics on cultural perceptions and
stereotypes. Students will understand how we judge individuals according to the sound of their
voices based only on stored cultural information. Instructors will first need to obtain recordings
of several individuals with distinct accents (e.g. Southern, Jersey, African American, Native
American, Chinese, French, Mexican, German, Indian, African, British, New England, Texan).
These recordings can be made by drama students or by people from these specific cultures. A
one-minute monologue should be recorded for each cultural accent.
Ask students to take out a sheet of paper. Tell them that they will hear several voices in the next
few minutes. They are to describe each person in terms of four areas: physical characteristics,
vocal characteristics, regional background and personality traits. Play each voice twice and give
students enough time to write about the four areas. Press upon students the need to be as
spontaneous as possible with their answers and to write quickly.
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
• What characteristics did you come up with for each voice (some students may be
reluctant to reveal some of their answers)? Why did you choose the characteristics
that you did?
• Have you heard someone speak like this before? Where (movies, face-to-face,
radio)?
• How accurate do you think your descriptions would be if you met these people?
• What is stereotyping? Do we all stereotype to some degree? Why?
• What effect might stereotyping have on interaction? Does it hinder or help
intercultural communication?
• In what ways does stereotyping prevent us from changing our perceptions and
attitudes about others from different cultural/co-cultural backgrounds?
• How can we lessen our reliance on cultural stereotypes as a means of knowing
about other cultures?
Activity 9-3: Kebedetch
This activity allows students to explore the different culture-specific interpretations ascribed to
nonverbal behavior. Students will understand that although the behavior may be the same, how
people perceive the behavior and the meaning they attach to it can vary greatly across cultures.
Copy and distribute the short story about Kebedetch that follows the explanation of this exercise.
Students should first read the story alone and give brief answers to the three questions below.
Then have them break into small groups to discuss the story and their answers.
1. What specific nonverbal behaviors did Kebedetch’s parents find objectionable?
2. What meanings had Ms. Larson ascribed to these behaviors? What meanings had
Momma and Poppa ascribed to these behaviors?
3. Within this story, what cultural information (values, attitudes, and expectations
about
parenting, education, etiquette, behavior of men and women, etc.) about the U.S.
and
Ethiopia is communicated through the words of Ms. Larson, Momma, and Poppa?
4. Do you think Kebedetch should be allowed to go back to school? Justify your
answer.
5. Should certain changes be made if Kebedetch is to return to school? If yes,
describe the changes that should be implemented. If not, think of any
consequences that might occur as a result.
The class should reconvene to discuss their responses to the questions, as well as other issues
relating to nonverbal behavior and meaning. Students should be encouraged to give other
examples of their own experiences with nonverbal behavior and the culture-specific meanings
ascribed to the behavior.
Possible discussion questions following the discussion:
• Do you think anyone acted inappropriately in this story?
• How do you think Kebedetch felt about her lessons from Ms. Larson?
• Was Ms. Larson teaching her Ethiopian students something valuable? What did
she fail to take into consideration?
• How could she have prevented Kebedetch’s withdrawal from her classes?
• What is cultural imperialism? Should Ms. Larson have been in Ethiopia teaching
what she believed was correct?
• What are examples of cultural imperialism in other countries and in the U.S. (e.g.
Manifest Destiny, the “English only” movement)?
• How is this story indicative of the phrase, “Meaning is in people”?
Kebedetch*
The school day ended. Tired Ms. Larson took her classroom problems home with her. She shared
her concerns at an informal cocktail party, particularly her frustration with teaching English in
the Ethiopian government school. “For three years, I've tried to get these girls to behave like
normal human beings, to have some pride, to hold up their heads, look me in the eye, and answer
a question in a voice I can hear without straining. They're so bright; they learn as fast as the
children back home, but they have no dignity. For all the good I've done here, I might as well
have stayed home in Iowa.” The school day ended. Kebedetch walked stiffly home. The strange
steel she had forced into her neck muscles seemed to have spread throughout her body. She felt
rigid, brave, and frightened. Entering the gojo (small house or hut), Kebedetch was greeted
warmly. Father asked the usual, daily question: “What did you learn today?” Kebedetch threw
back her head, looked her father in the eye, and proclaimed in a loud, clear voice, “Ethiopia is
composed of twelve provinces plus the Federated State of Eritrea. . . .”
Momma and Poppa talked late that night. What had happened to Kebedetch? She was no longer
behaving as a normal human being.
“Did you notice how she threw back her head like a man?” asked Poppa. “What has happened to
her shyness as a woman?”
“And her voice,” added Momma. “How happy I am that our parents were not present to hear a
daughter of ours speak with the voice of a foreigner.”
“She showed no modesty; she seemed to feel no pride. If she were normal, she would be
ashamed to raise her head like that, being a girl-child, and to speak so loudly,” Poppa added with
a deep sigh.
“Kebedetch has learned so much,” said Momma. “She knows more than I, and this has given me
great joy. But if her learnings are making her a strange, ungentle, beast-like person, I do not want
her to learn more. She is my only daughter.”
Poppa pondered. Finally he shook his head and spoke. “You are right, Mebrat; our daughter must
not return to school. The new education is not good, and only the strongest can survive. I had
hoped Kebedetch could learn and remain normal and gentle, could become a woman of dignity.
The frightening behavior of hers tonight has convinced me. She has lost her sense of pride, lost
her sense of shame, lost her dignity. She must not return to the school. We shall try to help her
find herself again.”
* Adapted from Lord, E. (1965). Examples of Cross-Cultural Problems Encountered by
Americans Working Overseas: An Instructor’s Handbook. Alexandria, VA: Human Resource
Research Organization.
Activity 9-4: When’s the dance?*
This activity demonstrates the difficulties people can encounter when learning how another
culture perceives and orients to time. Students will understand that how time is viewed in a P-
culture is not a fixed orientation but can fluctuate depending on the context and the individuals.
Have students read the case study below and answer the questions that follow. This can be a
group or an individual activity.
I am one of three Americans teaching at a high school in the Philippines. My school
scheduled its annual fundraising dance at which votes would be bought and sold to elect a
King and Queen of Hearts. The day of the dance I was told by the teachers, “Two
teachers will come for you and your two companions between 8:00 and 8:30 P.M.”
Although we were dressed and waiting at eight o'clock, we expected that our escorts
would come on “Filipino time” and call for us around nine or nine-thirty. We could relax
for a while. At ten o'clock, we assumed no one was coming for us so we decided to take
off our “Sunday best.” We had toyed with the thought of going alone to the dance, but
then thought better of it because we'd only embarrass those who were to come for us.
At eleven o'clock there was a knock on the door. Our escorts had arrived, and there we
stood in our pajamas! At that point all we wanted to do was to go to bed! After about five
minutes of apologies, they understood we weren't going to the dance and left.
At school the next morning, my principal asked me why we didn't come to the dance. I
told her it was 11:00 P.M. when our escorts arrived, and we were ready for bed. She
answered, “We assumed you understood Filipino time by now. Perhaps you need to be
educated in Filipino culture.” That afternoon the two teachers who had come for us the
night before returned to our house to apologize upon the request of the principal. The
result was only embarrassment for us, as well as for the teachers and the principal.
* Adapted from Holmes, H., & Guild, S. (1979). Cultural Assimilators. In D. S. Hoopes & P.
Ventura (Eds.), Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methodologies (pp. 77-81).
LaGrange Park, IL: Intercultural Network, Inc.
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
• How had the U.S. teachers understood “Filipino time”?
• How would you describe “Filipino time”?
• Is a misinterpretation of “Filipino time” the only issue involved in this incident?
Describe some other cultural factors that might be involved.
• How would you have handled this situation?
• Do you think the U.S. women should have gone to the dance? What implications
would this have had on their relationship with the principal, their escorts, and
perhaps other members of the school and community?
• Is it likely that “Filipino time” is dependent on the situation? But why did these
individuals perceive “Filipino time” as somewhat fixed? How did their M-time
orientation contribute to their misunderstanding of how the Filipino P-time culture
perceives of time?
• What experiences have you had with orienting to another culture's perception and
use of time? How did you handle these situations? How would you have liked to
have handled them now?
Activity 9-5: Critical incident
This activity illustrates that when our cultural orientation toward space is violated, feelings of
confusion and of being threatened often occur. Individuals may not be able to cope immediately
with space violations and may eventually ascribe a meaning to the behavior that was not at all
intended by the sender. Copy and distribute the critical incident that follows the explanation for
this activity. Divide the class into groups of four to six students. Each group should read the
critical incident and choose an answer from those provided or make up one of their own.
Instructors might also have students come up with reasons for why some of the explanations are
inadequate and why the one they selected is best. After each group has selected an explanation,
reconvene as a class to discuss the three explanations and those generated by the students. To
assist instructors, a short discussion of the explanations is provided at the end of this activity.
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
• Do you agree with the explanations given for each of the answers? Why or why
not?
• Do you feel that Jane handled the situation well? How do you think Dinorah
might have felt as Jane backed away during the conversation?
• What could Jane have done to make herself feel more comfortable? What could
she have said to Dinorah?
• How could Jane have nonverbally communicated to Dinorah that she needed
more space during their conversation?
• Have you ever interacted with someone who wished to speak closer to you than
you felt comfortable? What was your perception of this individual's behavior?
How did you handle this situation?
Critical incident*
Jane was asked to represent her U.S. company at a conference that was to take place in
Mexico City. Having just transferred to this Latin American country, she was
understandably flattered that her boss would ask her to participate and excited that she
would have the opportunity to see the city.
Everything went well, including traveling to the city and checking into the hotel, until the
pre-conference cocktail party. At the party, Jane was approached by a young woman
executive from a local firm who introduced herself as Dinorah. Immediately upon
striking up a conversation, Dinorah began moving closer and closer toward Jane. It
seemed that every time Jane moved away, Dinorah moved forward. After some time,
Jane found herself against a wall unable to retreat any further. Dinorah kept her close
distance. Having experienced enough discomfort, Jane curtly excused herself, returned to
her room, and refused to attend future social functions.
How could you best explain this incident?
1. Dinorah was making a sexual advance, and Jane was not interested in having
sexual relations with Dinorah.
2. It is very unusual in a Latin American country that a woman would be asked to
represent her firm. Dinorah resented seeing another woman present and wished to
make Jane feel as uncomfortable as possible, hoping she would leave.
3. The comfortable social distance usually kept between two Latin Americans is
much closer than that for Americans. Both Jane and Dinorah were seeking a
comfortable distance.
4. Suggest your own alternative.
Discussion of the explanations:
4. What explanations did you come up with?
* Adapted from Brislin, R. W., Cushner, K., Cherrie, C., & Yong, M. (1986). Intercultural
Interactions: A Practical Guide (pp. 171-172, 186-187). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Activity 9-6: Interactions between disabled and able-bodied people
It is not uncommon for some people to feel uncomfortable when interacting with physically
challenged individuals. In such encounters, researchers have noted greater physical distance, less
eye contact and shorter durations of talk. Clearly, it is common for able-bodied, or “temporarily
able-Bodied” persons, to focus on the disability instead of the person, thinking “What should I
say to someone who’s disabled?” versus “What can I share with this person?” Additional
uncertainty might arise for an able-bodied person with regard to how much assistance to offer a
disabled person or whether to wait until a physically challenged person asks for assistance.
• Have you ever felt uncomfortable communicating with someone who was in a
wheelchair or in some way physically challenged? Why do you think you felt this
way?
• How can we improve communication between the able-bodied and the disabled?
Interactions between disabled and able-bodied people: “Dear Abby”*
Dear Abby:
You have championed many causes for the physically challenged, and I thank you for
all you have done. Now, will you please do us one more favor? Please advise
waiters, waitresses, flight attendants, and everyone else who serves the public, of
the following:
This activity asks students to consider their own feelings about communicative behavior during
interactions with disabled individuals. In small groups, have students read the following “Dear
Abby” letter and answer the questions that follow. Instructors may want to have students first
consider their general perceptions and/or treatment of the disabled in a short free write. After
reading the letter, each group should report their discussion findings to the larger class.
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
• Why do people often communicate with disabled persons in the manner described
by “Can Communicate in Marietta”? What do you think keeps people from
communicating with a person who is disabled?
• What messages are these people sending to the disabled person?
• Identify the intentional and unintentional messages being sent here. Who are the
intended and unintended sources and receivers?
• Is the sender of an intentional message responsible for the way the receiver
decodes the message?
• Is the sender of an unintentional message responsible for the way the receiver
decodes the message?
• Do you think the two “inattentive” students behaved inappropriately?
• Was the “attentive” student who only looked like he was listening guilty of any
wrong-doing?
* Can Communicate in Marietta, Ohio. (“Dear Abby,” Seattle Times, 1993, p. C8).
Activity 9-7: Seeing and perceiving
This activity illustrates the impact that gaze has on interaction and the meaning we ascribe to
direct or indirect eye contact. Students will understand how they have come to interpret eye
contact in culturally specific ways and how misunderstandings can arise when we misinterpret a
person’s intentions or level of interest based on the amount of eye contact they use.
Divide students into groups of four students. The groups are to engage in a directed discussion
that will hopefully lead to some decision. Each group will receive four slips of paper--one slip
for each group member--with each slip having one of the following messages:
1. You are an African American and one of several managers in a large,
multinational firm. You have asked a group of other managers to come together to
generate ideas for the company's upcoming “Employee Appreciation Day.” You
would like the group to come to a decision as to where the festivities will take
place and what types of food and entertainment will be provided. Your job is to
engage all group members in a discussion of the available options.
You and the other three managers all hold the same level of position. You engage
in a lot of direct eye contact while talking but much less eye contact when
listening to others. Do not attempt to use accented speech or reveal the country or
culture that you are from.
4. You are from Saudi Arabia and one of several managers in a large, multinational
firm. You have been asked to join a group of managers to discuss plans for the
upcoming “Employee Appreciation Day.” You hold the same level of position as
the other three group members. You engage in a lot of direct eye contact while
speaking, and your gaze is long, intense and unbroken. Do not attempt to use
accented speech or reveal the country or culture that you are from.
After giving the students time to read their roles and understand what their instructions are, the
member who has called the meeting should begin the discussion and give the group a short
synopsis of why they have been called together. Allow the role play to continue for
approximately 15 to 20 minutes. Engage the class in a discussion of what happened during the
exercise.
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
• Was it difficult to role play the nonverbal behavior of a culture other than your
own?
• What nonverbal behavioral differences did you notice among the group members?
• With whose nonverbal behavior did you feel comfortable? Why? With whose did
you feel uncomfortable? Why?
• Could you guess the culture of each individual?
• Did your perceptions of their nonverbal behavior match their intentions? What
discrepancies were there between the sender's nonverbal behavior and the
receiver's perception of the behavior?
• What communication problems occurred as a result of the different types of eye
contact used?
• Can you think of times when you have felt uncomfortable with another person's
nonverbal behavior (i.e. eye contact, touch, proximity, etc.)? What meanings did
you ascribe to their behavior and did this meaning match their intentions?
• How can we become more comfortable with the nonverbal behavior of other
cultures and co-cultures?
Activity 9-8: Beauty in the biophysical eye of the beholder
The familiar idiom “Beauty is in the eye of the beholder” reinforces the idea that judgments of
attractiveness and beauty are independent of the object. In other words, beauty is a characteristic
we ascribe to things, not an innate quality of the thing itself. Compare this to Plato’s conception
of beauty which was independent of both the object and the observer. Most students have fairly
strong opinions about the question of what is or is not beautiful so the goal here is to get students
to examine their pre-existing beliefs.
The class before the activity, ask students to find a picture of a person who he or she thinks is
beautiful and bring it to class. Depending on the size of the class, the pictures can be passed
around or posted on the chalkboard. Before beginning the discussion, have students look
through the pictures. Questions to prompt discussion include:
• What similarities do you see in the pictures?
• What differences do you see?
It is likely that the process of identifying differences will prompt support for a receiver-oriented
definition of beauty. However, we want students to critically evaluate their assumptions so we
