978-1285444628 Chapter 6

CHAPTER 06

Cultural Values:

Roadmaps for Behavior

OVERVIEW

With the context of history and worldview to juxtapose against, Chapter Six examines the

concept of values. The authors begin by introducing caveats for understanding both perception

and values before embarking on discussion of various models used to categorize and organize

groups based on cultulral values. Models include: Kohls’ “The Values Americans Live By,”

Hofstede’s value dimensions,” Minkov’s monumentalism/flexhumility, Kluckhohn and

Strodtbeck’s cultural orientations, and Hall’s high/low context cultures. In addition, results of

the GLOBE study are presented along with a review of face/face-work and cultural patterns in

communication

OUTLINE

I. Perception’s influence

II. Beliefs, values, and behaviors

III.Understanding cultural patterns

IV.Choosing cultural patterns

V. Applying cultural patterns

A.Kohls’ “the values Americans live by”

1. Personal control over nature

2. Change

3. Time and its control

4.Equality/egalitarianism

5.Individuality and privacy

6.Self-help control

7.Competition and free enterprise

8.Future orientation

9.Action/work orientation

10.Informality

11.Directness, openness, and honesty

12.Practicality and efficiency

13.Materialism

VI. Other cultural patterns typologies

A. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s value orientations

1. Human nature orientation

2. Person/nature orientation

3. Time orientation

4. Activity orientation

B. Hall’s high-context and low-context orientations

1.High-context

2.Low-context

C.Hofstede’s value dimensions

1.Individualism/collectivism

2.Uncertainty avoidance

3.Power distance

4.Masculinity/femininity

5.Long- and short-term orientation

D.Minkov’s monumentalism/flexhumility

1. Industry versus indulgence

2. Monumentalism versus flexumility

3. Exclusionism versus universalism

E. Tight and loose cultures

VII. Face and facework

VIII. Cultural patterns and communication

IX. Developing cultural value awareness

X. Summary

ACTIVITIES

Activity 6-1: Tragedies, human nature orientation, and resource allocation

For the U.S. and many parts of the world, recent years have been populated by major tragedies

including an earthquake in the Indian Ocean that triggered a devastating Tsunami that killed tens

of thousands of people, an earthquake in Pakistan the killed nearly as many, and a hurricane that

damaged or destroyed much of the Gulf coast including extensive destruction in New Orleans.

To varying degrees, each of these tragedies received international attention. This activity asks

students to take the role of an international response team sent to help people who are victims of

similar tragedies.

Scenario

A massive earthquake occurred in a heavily populated, industrialized urban center. Although

there are no estimates of casualties at this time, the infrastructure has sustained massive damage.

Power, water, and sanitation will be unavailable indefinitely, and basic needs such as food and

shelter will be needed for 1.5 million people displaced by the earthquake. As strategists for an

international response team, you are responsible for developing a broad response strategy. As

strategists for the response team, you must determine how to allocate the available resources for

the relief effort. Using the list below, decide what percentage of available resources will be

applied to each of the categories. Remember, your total must equal 100%.

1. _____ % Temporary supplies food and water for the population.

2. _____ % Rebuilding infrastructure to provide a stable source of food and

water.

3. _____ % Identifying and isolating the geological epicenter of the earthquake.

4. _____ % Basic medical supplies.

5. _____ % Temporary shelters for the displaced population.

6. _____ % Security to protect the displaced population.

7. _____ % Counseling and support for psychological trauma

8. _____ % Advanced medical equipment supplies for treating severe injuries.

9. _____ % Reinforcing infrastructure to protect against aftershocks.

10. _____ % Logistics and materials for evacuation.

11. _____ % Security to protect the response team, service workers, other relief agencies,

and supplies.

12. _____ % Developing a structured chain of command to facilitate response team operations.

13. _____ % Security to protect important infrastructure such as a nuclear reactor or historical

landmark.

14. _____ % Training the population to be self-sufficient.

15. _____ % Long term planning and recovery for the affected area.

_____ % Total (sum total must be 100%)

Students can be broken into groups or respond to the allocation problem individually. Compare

the percentages and the way students allocated their resources and discuss how the distribution

reflects the human nature orientations described in the text.

Human nature is reflected in items 6, 11, and 13.

Humankind and nature is reflected in items 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, and 15.

Sense of time is reflected in items 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 10, and 15.

Activity is reflected in items 7 and 14.

Social relationships is reflected in items 12 and 14.

Discuss how each student or group’s responses to the questions highlight cultural values.

Students should be encouraged to debate how each of the items relate to cultural values.

Activity 6-2: Individualism/collectivism and uncertainty avoidance

According to a recent survey, the U.S. culture has the highest level of individualism (see table

6.1 on page 185) and one of the highest levels uncertainty avoidance (see table 6.2 on page 188).

Although both concepts are discussed in detail, the relationship between the two is left to the

reader to discern. This activity asks students to compare the two tables to determine what

patterns can be discovered. That is, are countries that are high in uncertainty avoidance more

likely to be high in individualism or collectivism, low in individualism or collectivism, or a

combination of the two? Below is a sampling of data that was derived from the tables.

Country Individualism Uncertainty

collectivism avoidance

United States ( 1/53) (43/53)

Australia ( 2/53) (37/53)

Sweden (10/53) (49/53)

Venezuela (50/53) (21/53)

Guatemala (53/53) ( 3/53)

Panama (51/53) (10/53)

Singapore (39/53) (53/53)

In some cases, it appears that high individualism is correlated with lower

tolerance for uncertainty (e.g., United States, Guatemala) while in other cases the

two seem unrelated (e.g., Singapore).

Possible discussion questions include:

• How would you describe the countries and cultures in which individualism is

highly valued? What is the relationship between these countries geographically,

economically, and politically?

• How would you describe the countries and cultures in which collectivism is

highly valued? What is the relationship between these countries geographically,

economically, and politically?

• How would you describe the countries and cultures in which avoiding uncertainty

is valued? What is the relationship between these countries geographically,

economically, and politically?

• How would you describe the countries and cultures in which avoiding uncertainty

is valued? What is the relationship between these countries geographically,

economically, and politically?

• Do you think the individualism/collectivism orientation of a culture is related to

whether or not that culture values uncertainty avoidance? If so, do you think the

relationship is positive or negative? Linear or parabolic?

• Are individualistic cultures more or less likely to avoid uncertainty?

• Are collectivist cultures more or less likely to avoid uncertainty?

You may also choose to include the findings on power distance (table 6.3, page 189),

masculinity-feminity (table 6.4, page 191, although doing so will add significantly more

complexity to the task.

Activity 6-3: Values in children’s literature

This activity involves the examination of underlying cultural values as expressed through

children’s literature. Students should use Hofstede’s Value Dimensions:

Individualism/Collectivism

High/Low Uncertainty Avoidance

High/Low Power Distance

Masculinity/Femininity

Long/Short term Orientation

as well as Kluckhohns and Strodtbeck’s value orientations:

Human nature orientation (good or evil)

Person/nature orientation (subject, cooperative, control)

Time orientation (past, present, future)

Activity Orientation (being, being-in-becoming, doing)

The instructor may ask students to identify fairy tales themselves or provide a short story for

them. Once identified, students should categorize as many components of the story that they can

which reflect the values identified above. Finally, students should share their analysis.

Activity 6-4: Introspective analysis of U.S. Values

Arguably, any value taken to an absolute extreme is likely to seem logically absurd. In this

activity, we examine the values of the dominant culture in the U.S. as described in chapter 5.

Specifially, the values of:

• Individualism

• Equal opportunity

• Material Acquisition

• Science and technology

• Progress and change

• Work and play

• Competitive nature

In this activity, students will be asked to identify interpret each value in a negative way as well

as a positive one. For example, promoting individualism is good because it allows people to be

self-reliant and resistant to the pressure of others. Taken to the extreme, however, individualism

ignores inter-relationships and responsibility/consequences of individualism on the larger

society. The point of the activity is not to denigrate the values themselves but rather to expose

the implications of those values. Most people would probably agree that material acquisition at

any cost is not a good thing, but some might. Is there such a thing as too much emphasis on

science/technology? Can we be too competitive?

Ask students to identify any other “common values” they can think of and engage in the same

process of identifying positive and negative aspects of the value. Write the examples on the

board, creating two lists: (1) a list of the best, positive examples for each of the listed values as

well as any others introduced by the students, and (2) the best negative examples.

Through the process, try to get students to think critically about their values independent of the

dominant cultural values. Ask students how they would guard against the negative

manifestations of the values without compromising the value itself?

SUPPLEMENTAL FILMS AND VIDEOS

Asian American Cultures (1992, 60 minutes)

This instructional video examines similarities and differences across groups of Asians. It not

only considers why Asian Americans are often called the “model minority,” but also illuminates

problems between first and second generations of Asian Americans.

Arab Americans (1993, 30 minutes)

This instructional video celebrates the cultural heritage of Arab Americans by examining the

traditions each group has brought to the U.S., when and why they immigrated, and how they

have preserved their identity in the process.

Hidden Faces (1990, 52 minutes)

This film portrays the lives of Muslim women in Egypt. In this collaborative documentary, a

young Egyptian woman living in Paris returns to Egypt and discovers complex frictions between

modernity and tradition as well as a disturbing renewal of fundamentalism.

Japanese Nonverbal Communication (1978, 20 minutes)

This instructional video depicts common Japanese facial expressions and gestures in formal and

informal social and business settings. It examines differences between Japanese men and women

and explores seating arrangements, greetings, and food service.

TEST ITEMS: CHAPTER 06

Multiple-Choice

1. Perception is considered selective because ____. (A) there are too many stimuli

competing for the attention of your senses; (B) life’s lessons teach you to see the world in

a particular way; (C) culture teaches you the meaning of most of your experiences;

(D) once you perceive something in a particular manner that interpretation does not

usually change

2. Because we view the world through a subjective lens influenced by a number of

variables, perception is considered: (A) selective; (B) learned; (C) inaccurate;

(D) consistent; (E) culturally determined

3. Values are important because they inform societies about ____. (A) what is good or bad;

(B) what is worth dying for; (C) how people should treat each other; (D) what is worth

protecting; (E) A, B, C, and D

4. Which of the following is not one of the thirteen American values identified by Kohls?

(A) personal control over the environment; (B) formality; (C) competition; (D) self-help;

(E) practicality/efficiency

5. Optimism and emphasis on the future reflect which of Kohls American values?

(A)idealism; (B) individualism; (C) time and its control; (D) change; (E) privacy

6. The self-help value according to Kohls, is an outgrowth of ____. : (A) independence;

(B) equality; (C) individuality; (D) A and C; (E) A, B, and C

7. Which of the following is true about Hofstede’s dimension of individualism? (A) the

individual is most important unit in any social setting; (B) interdependence rather than

independence is stressed; (C) individual achievements are rewarded; (D) A and C; (E) A,

B, and C

8. Identify which country is not ranked in the top five in terms of the culture’s emphasis on

individualism? (A) United States; (B) Austria; (C) Great Britain; (D) Canada;

(E) Netherlands

9. Collectivism means the people in a culture place greater emphasis on: (A) the needs of

the in-group over oneself; (B) social norms and duty defined by in-group; (C) beliefs

shared with in-group; (D) great readiness to cooperate with in-group members; (E) A, B,

C, and D

10. The extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous and unknown

situations is referred to as ____. (A) uncertainty avoidance; (B) tolerance for ambiguity;

(C) equivocality; (D) ethnocentricity; (E) neoplasticity

11. A high power distance culture ____. (A) holds that inequality should be minimized;

(B) believes superiors and subordinates should consider themselves equals; (C) believe

that people are not equal but that everyone has a ‘rightful place’; (D) powerful try to

appear less powerful; (E) A, B, C, and D

12. In masculine-oriented cultures, women are supposed to be: (A)men should be assertive,

tough, and focused; (B) women should be assertive, tough, and focused; (C) women

should be modest, tender, and concerned with quality of life; (D) A and C; (E) A and B

13. Cultures that foster virtues oriented toward future rewards—in particular, perseverance

and thrift, reflect what Hofstede called a ____. (A) short term orientation; (B) future bias;

(C) long term orientation; (D) future-oriented; (E) past progressive

14. The World Values Survey defined ____ as ‘a tendency to allow relatively free

gratification of basic and natural human desires related to enjoying life and having fun.’

(A) indulgent; (B) hedonistic; (C) opportunistic; (D) restrained; (E) secular

15. According to Minkov, which of the following is associated with flexhumility? (A) self-

pride; (B) holistic cognition; (C) religion is important; (D) lower value on education; (E)

suicide taboo

16. Monumentalism within a culture, according to Minkov, indicates that members believe

____. (A) self-concept is flexible; (B) interpersonal competition is encouraged; (C) truth

is relative; (D) education is highly valued; (E) A, B, C, and D

17. Identify which of the following is not among the five universal questions for cultures,

according to Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck. (A) what is the character of human nature?

(B) what is the relation of humankind to nature?; (C) what is the value of wealth;

(D) what is the relationship of people to each other? (E) what is the value placed on time?

18. The human nature orientation of a culture reflects the general belief____. (A) that

humans are intrinsically evil; (B) that humans are intrinsically good; (C) that humans are

a mixture of good and evil; (D) A, B, and C; (E) that good and evil have no meaning

19. In terms of the person/nature orientation, Western cultures traditionally view: (A) humans

as subject to nature; (B) humans in harmony with nature; (C) humans as natures’

providers; (D) humans as master of nature; (E) nature as humans’ provider

20. What time orientation do most Americans in the United States favor? (A) past; (B) future;

(C) present; (D) linearity; (E) polychromic

21. The activity orientation of being-in-becoming ____: (A) is evident in most Latino

cultures; (B) reflects value of spiritual over material life; (C) is reflective of the

dominant U.S. culture; (D) stresses development and growth; (E) B and D

22. Low context cultures include all of the following except: (A) German; (B) North

American; (C) Native American; (D) English; (E) French

23. The GLOBE Study differentiated between two types of collectivism: (A) in-group and

societal; (B) in-group and out-group; (C) ethnic and inter-ethnic; (D) local and national;

(E) selective and exhaustive

24. The following countries belong in same societal group, according to the GLOBE study.

(A) Canada, England, United States; (B) Finland, Sweden, Denmark; (C) Turkey, Egypt,

Kuwait; (D) China, Japan, Taiwan; (E) A, B, C, and D

25. In the context of chapter 6, face refers to ____. (A) a superficial view of someone;

(B) how you are perceived by others; (C) the self-image you want to project; (D) A and

C; (E) B and C

True/False

1. Perception is learned because once you perceive something in a particular way, which

interpretation does not usually change.

2. Perception is inaccurate because you view the world through a subjective lens influenced

by culture, values, and personal experiences which tend to make you see what you

want/expect to see.

3. Cultural patterns are integrated and can be contradictory.

4. According to Kohls, the U.S. values tradition over change.

5. Cultures that promote interdependency and cooperation take a negative view of intra-

group competition.

6. The American preference for a large selection of material items to choose from is

illustrated by typical supermarkets, and the number of choices at Subway.

7. Individual orientation vs. group orientation is thought of as one of the basic pattern

variables that determine human action.

8. Collectivism in the United States is seen in the expectation that employees will change

jobs in order to advance their careers.

9. Countries ranked highest for individualism include Venezuela, Panama, Ecuador, and

Guatemala.

10. Japan is a low uncertainty culture with many formal social protocols that help to predict

how people will behave in almost every social interaction.

11. Countries whose cultures reflect a comfort with uncertainty (low uncertainty avoidance)

include Greece, Portugal, and Guatemala.

12. Cultures with high power distance emphasize status differences.

13. The United States is among the top five countries for high power distance.

14. A society is called feminine when emotional gender roles overlap—both men and women

are expected to be modest, tender, and concerned with quality of life.

15. The indulgence/restraint dimension reflects a cultures orientation toward disciplining the

young.

16. Flexhumility cultures place less value on education than monumentalist ones.

17. Confucianism and Buddhism support the notion that human nature is good.

18. Chinese culture has a strong focus on the present time orientation.

19. Most Latino cultures consider the current activity as the one that matters the most.

20. High-context cultures tend to convey meaning through status and informal friends and

associates.

21. For low-context cultures, the verbal message contains most of the information and very

little is embedded in the context or the person’s nonverbal activity.

22. Humane orientation refers to the degree to which societal and organizational members

acquiesce to unequal distribution of power.

23. Societal collectivism and in-group collectivism are two terms that mean the same thing.

24. In collectivist cultures, a person’s face is usually derived from his or her own self-effort.

Short Answer/Essay

1. What is perception? Explain the characteristics of perception.

2. Define values and provide at least two intercultural examples.

Content: pp. 174-175

3. Explain what is meant by the term ‘cultural patterns.’ What caveats to the term do the

authors present?

4. List and explain at least six of the thirteen values identified by Kohls as “The Values

Americans live by.”

5. Explain how contradictions in the value of equality/egalitarianism explained in U.S.

culture?

6. Identify and explain three common U.S. phrases that reflect the American value of

directness, openness, and honesty.

7. Compare and contrast Hofstede’s concepts of individualism and collectivism.

8. What is uncertainty avoidance? Provide an example of a culture that has high uncertainty

avoidance and one that has low uncertainty avoidance.

9. Is the U.S. a high or a low power distance culture? Explain the concepts and justify your

answer.

10. Discuss Hofstede’s masculinity/femininity dimension. Provide an example of each.

11. Explain what is meant by the term ‘monumentalism’ and contrast that with the concept of

flexhumility.

12. What does your culture tell you about human nature? Give an example of a culture with a

different orientation.

13. Differentiate between the concepts of being, being–in-becoming, and doing.

14. What do the terms high-context and low-context mean? Provide cultural examples of

each.

15. How did the GLOBE study extend the previous dimensions of culture?

16. Identify five of the ten GLOBE study cultural dimensions.

17. What are the major characteristics associated any five of the following GLOBE

societal/geographical groups? (a) White Dominant; (b) Scandinavia; (c) Central Europe;

(d) Eastern Europe; (e) Southern Europe; (f) Africa; (g) the Middle East; (h) Central and

South America; (I) Northeast Asia; (j) South and Southeast Asia.

18. Explain the concepts of face and face-work. How are they manifest in collectivistic and

individualistic cultures?