CHAPTER 05
Cultural History:
Precursor to the Present and Future
OVERVIEW
Chapter five contextualizes the study of intercultural communication by providing overviews of
cultural histories. Although far from exhaustive, the chapter provides both the cultural
background and a historical sketch of the United States, Russia, China, Japan, India, Mexico, and
Islamic civilizations. In addition, contemporary social issues facing each culture are also
addressed.
OUTLINE
I. History’s Influence
II. U.S. History
A. Contemporary social issues
III. Russian history
A. Contemporary social issues
IV. Chinese history
A. Communicating history
B. Contemporary social issues
V. Japanese history
A. Contemporary social issues
VI. Indian history
A. Contemporary social issues
VII. Mexican history
A. Contemporary social issues
VIII. Historical overview of Islamic civilization
A. Muslim demographics
B. The age of ignorance (Jahiliya)
C. The rise and spread of Islam
D. Legacy of Islamic history
XI. Developing historical memory competency for intercultural communication interactions
X. Summary
ACTIVITIES
Activity 5-1: What if . . .
This activity illustrates not only the great diversity of world views held by different cultures but
also how those world views affect and are affected by deep economic, political, and social
structures. To begin, divide the class into groups of four to six students. Ask each group to give
examples of what a society would be like if it held each of the beliefs listed below. In other
words, students should imagine what the deep structure of a culture that held each of the
following beliefs would “look like.” For example, what religions would likely flourish? What
types of laws or political practices might prevail? What kind of an economy would students
expect? What might the family structures and social interactions be like? Some of the statements
may need to be explained to students. After the class regroups, ask for students’ speculations
about each of the ten beliefs.
What would a society be like if its’ members believed…
• in reincarnation and karma?
• that all other people are infidels or nonbelievers?
• that all events in the world are determined by Fate?
• that a person’s worth is determined solely by his/her “high” or “low” birth?
• in the passive approach to life as preferable to an action orientation?
• that certain ethnic or racial groups are intellectually inferior and emotionally
immature?
• that elderly people are to be revered, honored, and deferred to in all instances?
• that aesthetic values are of supreme importance and should be used to determine
every major issue in life?
• that the rights of groups are more important than those of the individual?
• that women are superior to men?
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
• Clearly, some cultures hold one, two, or more of these beliefs as the basis of their
culture. Do any of these beliefs reflect dominant U.S. culture? What other cultures
are represented? How do you know this?
• How do you personally feel about some of these world views? Are any of them
“wrong” or “right”?
• If you had to leave your native culture and choose another society to live in,
which one would you choose and why? Which society would you never choose to
live in and why?
Activity 5-2: Business in Bangkok*
This activity illustrates how the same situation can be perceived quite differently by individuals
from two different cultures. Students will examine a case study and isolate the different
perceptions manifested in the participants’ behavior. Divide the class into groups of four to six
students. Have each group read the following case study and answer the questions that follow.
When the class regroups, have each group report their responses. To assist instructors in
debriefing students, a short explanation of the case study is provided at the end of this activity.
Shawna had recently been assigned to her agency’s Bangkok office. At first she was very
impressed with the willingness shown by the people with whom she worked to carry out the
program she was trying to implement. Soon, however, she discovered that her deadlines were not
being met. People who had agreed to do something didn’t always show up, and materials were
disappearing from the workrooms but no one seemed inclined to find out what had happened to
them. With all of these setbacks, Shawna’s program was sure to go at least slightly, perhaps even
significantly, over budget. She was becoming increasingly frustrated and was about to issue an
ultimatum: “Shape up or ship out!” However, her Thai supervisors didn’t seem to be at all upset
and kept saying, “Mai pen rai,” which means “It doesn’t really matter . . .don’t worry about it.”
• How did Shawna perceive the situation described above? What value orientations
was she using to form her perceptions?
• How did her Thai employees and supervisors perceive the situation? What value
orientations were they using to form their perceptions?
• Would you say that one set of perceptions was more “correct” or “better” than the
other? Do you think anyone behaved “incorrectly” or “badly”?
• What changes (if any) would you suggest to Shawna? What changes (if any)
would you suggest to her Thai employees and supervisors?
Possible discussion questions following the exercise:
• What were your initial perceptions of the case study? How did you perceive the
Thai employees supervisors? How did you perceive Shawna’s frustration with
them?
• How could Shawna have prepared herself for the customs and behavior of her
new employees and supervisors? How could her employees and supervisors have
prepared themselves for Shawna’s expectations?
• Whose responsibility was it to become culturally informed?
• What situations have you been in where your perceptions of how something
should be done were in direct contrast with another person’s? Were cultural
differences in perception at work in this situation?
• How did you handle the differences in perception? How do you wish you had
handled the situation?
Debriefing the exercise:
The word “Thai” literally means “free.” Although it refers to national independence, it is also a
characteristic of the culture. One of the hardest things for Americans to understand and reconcile
is the Thai culture’s dual attitude of “group harmony,” which emphasizes preserving everyone’s
good feelings (e.g. telling people what you think they want to hear even if it stretches the truth),
and a sense of “individualism” or “noninvolvement,” which says that a person is responsible
only to him/herself and that his/her actions are no one else’s concern. Thus, while, or perhaps
because, Thais place great value on keeping relationships pleasant, they are not inclined to accept
discipline or regimentation.
This attitude is reflected in the expression “mai pen rai” which, according to one scholar,
signifies “the Thai desire to keep relationships peaceful and on an even keel, to shrug off the
little frustrations and disagreements of life, to prevent anger or passion from coming to the
surface.”
A related value in Thai culture is the concept of “sanuke,” which means “to enjoy oneself.” Life
is meant to be enjoyed; problems should not stand in the way of that enjoyment. And since
Buddhism teaches people to accept their fate, many Thais tend to laugh off problems—“mai pen
rai.”
Shawna may want to first acknowledge and try to understand this cultural difference—that getting
the job done on time and within budget is not of the same importance to Thais as to Westerners
in general and Americans in particular. She should then try to arrive at a solution that is receptive
to cultural differences, a solution that allows for different ways of working toward the same
goal−the implementation of her program.
* Adapted from The Bridge: A Review of Cross-Cultural Affairs and International
Training. Denver: Center for Research and Education.
Activity 5-3: Who Am I?
The Who Am I exercise is designed to get students to think about the worldview and perspective
of other cultures based on their histories. In this role-playing exercise, students should be broken
into small groups. Each group should be assigned to one of the following:
• U.S
• Russian
• Chinese
• Japanese
• Indian
• Mexican
• Islamic Civilizations
Using material from the text, students in each group should attempt to place themselves in the
shoes of the culture. The goal of each group should be to identify their cultural identity through
actions and portrayals without explicitly stating who they are. While role-playing, other groups
should attempt to identify what country or culture the current group is attempting to portray.
While preparing the display, students will need to think about how to express the essential ideas
of each culture without explicitly describing them. This may require students to extrapolate
actions based on what is known. Use the follow up discussion period to discuss these extensions
and how they might promote greater empathy and understanding.
SUPPLEMENTAL FILMS AND VIDEOS
Café au Lait (1994, 94 minutes)
This film is a high-spirited, frank comedy about race, romance, and family in Paris. Lola, an 18-
year-old West Indian woman announces her pregnancy to her two lovers: Felix, who is a white,
Jewish bike messenger enamored by African American hip-hop; and Jamal, who is a black law
student from a wealthy diplomatic family. Beyond an unsanitized view of race relations, the film
presents a unique family situation and nicely points out that in confrontation begins the discovery
of a common humanity.
Choosing Children (1984, 45 minutes)
This film explores the issues confronting lesbian mothers. Through interviews with mothers and
their children, the film speaks about possibilities for parenting and about the importance of
understanding different ways of living together.
Family and Household (1994, 30 minutes)
This instructional video examines the functions of family and household from a cross-cultural
perspective as well as their varied forms including monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry.
Family and Work in Revolutionary America (2007, 19 minutes)
This video depicts the relationship of husbands, wives, and children as well as the roles and
expectations of each in colonial America. Although the modern family is not addressed, it’s a
great way of comparing and contrasting modern family roles and values.
Out In South Africa (1995, 51 min.)
This film chronicles lesbian/gay life in South Africa. Using interviews conducted by and about
South Africa’s gays and lesbians, the film shows a people’s optimism and challenges in a
country emerging from a legacy of racial and sexual apartheid.
Wind Grass Song: The Voice of Our Grandmothers (1989, 20 minutes)
This film presents a unique vision of U. S. regional culture through an invaluable oral history,
memory, and the spirit of mid-westerners who conquered the challenges of this century. In this
documentary, venerable faces and voices of these elderwomen—Black, Native American, and
white—are interwoven.
TEST ITEMS: CHAPTER 04
Multiple-Choice
1. What is sometimes referred to as the first multicultural nation in the world? (A) the East
India Trading Company; (B) the United States; (C) Egypt; (D) Rome; (E) Islam
Answer: B Content: pg. 93
2. Which of the following was not among the chief values adopted by early settlers in the
United States? (A) individuality; (B) lack of formality; (C) efficient use of time;
(D) limited government; (E) C and D
3. What concept applied in the U.S. during the 1800s was used to justify westward
expansion into the “unused land” in North America? (A) magna carta; (B) Louisiana
purchase; (C) manifest destiny; (D) industrial revolution; (E) the Mexican-American War
4. According to the text, which of the following are among the most contentious and
divisive social issues in the U.S.? (A) right to life vs. freedom of choice; (B) same-sex
marriage; (C) prayer in school; (D) A and B; (E) A, B, and C
5. The most prominent aspect of Russia’s history is____. (A) geography; (B) political
heritage; (C) historical tradition; (D) the arts; (E) militarization
6. Which of the following is not one of the three distinctly Russian traits identified in the
text? (A) patriotism; (B) Russia should play a role in world affairs; (C) collectivism;
(D) state-centeredness; (E) C and D
7. The contemporary social issues facing Russia include: (A) rapidly increasing birthrate;
(B) widespread official corruption; (C) growing resentment of ethnic groups; (D) B and
C; (E) A, B, and C
8. What did it take for China to remove the influence of foreign powers from inside its
borders? (A) World War I; (B) World War II; (C) the Communist Revolution; (D) A and
C; (E) B and C
9. China’s desire for increased military strength and international recognition is, in part, due
to: (A) China’s long history; (B) past victimization by foreign powers; (C) recent turmoil
in the global economy; (D) A and B; (E) A, B, and C
10. Which of the following is not one of the contemporary social issues facing modern
China? (A) growing social inequality; (B) stagnant economy; (C) perception of
widespread corruption; (D) disproportionate number of young males; (E) A, B, C, and D
11. The Tokugawa era of Japanese history was characterized by: (A) self-imposed isolation;
(B) near constant civil war; (C) conflict with China and Korea; (D) large scale
immigration; (E) C and D
12. Group affiliation in Japan was historically inculcated by: (A) feudal government system;
(B) rigid class system; (C) natural geography and topography; (D) A and B; (E) A, B, and
C
13. Contemporary social issues facing Japanese society include: (A) demographic, economic,
and religious changes; (B) demographic changes, immigration issues, and risk
management; (C) economic changes, immigration issues, and political instability,
(D) social and technological change, political instability; (E) widespread corruption,
technological change, political instability
14. India became free of British colonial rule in this year. (A) 1947; (B) 1885; (C) 1904;
(D) 1989; (E) 1843
15. Which of the following is not true about India? (A ) fifth largest economy in the world;
(B) 25% of the population live in poverty; (C) 13% of the population is Hindu;
(D) widespread official corruption; (E) lack of primary education in many Indian states
16. Which period of history do Mexicans generally take the most pride in? (A) modern
Mexico; (B) the revolution; (C) independence from Spain; (D) pre-Columbian;
(E) the Mexican-American war
17. The Spanish invasion of Mexico began in 1519. Approximately what percentage of the
native population remained by 1650? (A) 50%; (B) 25%; (C) 10%; (D) less than 3%;
(E) the native population was completely eradicated
18. The Hacienda system of Mexico is best characterized by: (A) landed aristocrats ruling
agrarian peasants; (B) the treaty of Guadalupe; (C) competition among the Olmecs,
Toltecs, and Mayas; (D) lack of a significant class system; (E) religious tolerance
19. What are the major social issues facing Mexico today? (A) poverty; (B) illegal
immigration; (C) narco-violence; (D) A and B; (E) A, B, and C
20. Between 2006-2010, nearly 35,000 people have been killed as a result of ___ in Mexico.
(A) civil unrest; (B) narco-violence; (C) eco-terrorism; (D) official corruption; (E) illegal
migration
21. Muslim’s refer to the pre-Islamic era as Jahiliya, which is roughly translated as: (A) the
age of ignorance; (B) the great humiliation; (C) before the dawn; (D) the great sleep;
(E) the period of waiting
22. The division between the beliefs of Sunni and Shiite Muslims is based on: (A) the pillars
of Islam; (B) women’s rights; (C) the line of succession in Islam; (D) interpretations of
Sharia law; (E) radicalization of beliefs
23. For contemporary Muslims, the history of Islam is continually reinforced through ___.
(A) language; (B) geography; (C) tribal affiliation; (D) A and B; (E) A, B, and C
24. Islamists ____. (A) wish to restore the golden age of Islamic civilization; (B) want to
reinstitute strict law, values, and principles; (C) more than 50% of the Arab world
electorate support Islamist parties; (D) A and B; (E) A, B, and C
True/False
1. In many cases, the word “culture” can easily be replaced with the word “history.”
2. The values of early settlers in the U.S. were a combination of selected English values as
well as new beliefs, such as individuality and efficient use of time.
3. The early frontier individualism of U.S. setters commonly portrayed in the media is very
accurate.
4. The philosophy used to justify aggressive western expansion in the early years of the U.S.
was referred to as eminent domain.
5. Russia’s political traditional has been historically autocratic.
6. The Russian historical tradition is marked by a deep appreciation of and devotion to the
arts.
7. Although it has been two decades since the collapse of Communist rule, Russia remains
in transition.
8. A distinctly Russian value, according to Putin, is a sense of entitlement born out of
historical victimization.
9. The documented history of China goes back approximately 3500 years, making China the
oldest, continuous civilization.
10. Philosophical diversity in China gave rise to great variation in dialects and customs in
China.
11. An example of China’s concern for history is reflected in the request that the Russian
President and his party remove poppy pins lest they invoke images of the ‘opium wars’
between the two nations in the mid 1800s.
12. By 2025, China is anticipating 350 million people living in cities that do not exist today.
13. Japan’s relative cultural diversity is due to the proportionately large number of
immigrants in the past.
14. Japan was forcibly opened to foreigners in the mid nineteenth century by Western
powers.
15. During the Tokugawa period, the Japanese formed a culture where in many contexts there
was a single, correct way of doing thing.
16. Because of the mountainous terrain, Japanese cultural values reflect self-reliance and
independence.
17. The growing presence of foreigners in Japanese society is often seen as a risk in terms of
crime rates and cultural identity.
18. India’s history reflects relative cultural homogeneity.
19. The Mughal Empire of India established the strongest dynasty in India’s history.
20. The East India Company gained power in India through “cultural seduction” and
protected the welfare, economy, and culture of the indigenous people.
21. The conflict between India and Pakistan over Kashmir is rooted in the creation of
separate, sovereign states.
22. Muslim and Hindu relations remain a serious problem in modern day India.
23. The proudest period in Mexican history was when independence was won from Spain.
24. Spain’s invasion of Mexico introduced Catholicism and a rigid social class system.
25. Contemporary social issues in Mexico today include poverty, unemployment, and narco-
violence.
26. By 2030, it is projected that Muslims will represent more than 25% of the world’s
population.
27. Sunni and Shiite Muslims were historically divided on the line of succession after the
death of Muhammed and the last of the Rightly Guided Caliphs.
28. Defeat of the Ottomans at the end of the First World War concluded more than 1300
years of a unified Islam, replacing it with nation-states.
29. Islamist groups are largely supported in the Arab world.
Short Answer/Essay
1. Explain the importance of history to the study of intercultural communication.
2. Discuss how the early settlers of the United States contributed to the cultural values in the
U.S. today.
3. What is the doctrine of “manifest destiny” and what was its impact?
4. How has the geography of Russia shaped its history?.
5. Describe the major events in Russia’s political history that contributed to Russian values
and traits.
6. List and describe the major social issues facing Russia today.
7. How has geography influenced Chinese culture? List at least three examples.
8. How have historical events of the past 200 years affected China’s worldview?
9. What did the authors of the text mean when they wrote, “China is an example of how
governments can use history as a form of communication?”
10. What are the major social issues currently facing China?
11. What impact did geography have on Japanese history and culture?
12. Explain the Tokugawa era of Japan and how it is manifest in Japanese culture today.
13. Why does Japanese culture have a collectivist orientation?
14. Identify and explain the major social issues facing modern Japan.
15. How did British colonialism and the East India Company influence India’s values and
worldview?
16. Explain how and why India was partitioned after independence from Britain. What are
the modern day implications of this decision?
17. Explain the tensions between Hindu Nationals and Muslims in India. What other social
issues are faced in modern day India?
18. Discuss three of the six major periods of Mexico’s history.
19. How did Spain’s invasion of Mexico impact the indigenous people and culture?
20. What major change did the Mexican Revolution of 1910 bring?
21. Describe the influence of poverty, unemployment, and narco-terrorism in modern day
Mexico.
22. Who was Muhammad and the Rightly Guided Caliphs?.How did Islamic civilization
change after their deaths?
23. What is the primary distinction between Sunni and Shiite Muslims?
24. For modern day Muslims, how is the history of Islam reinforced?
25. Explain the major social issues facing Islamic civilizations today.