CHAPTER 10
PERSUASIVE SPEAKING
Chapter Objective: By the time students are ready to cover this chapter, they should have in
mind one or more specific topics and positions suitable for a persuasive presentation. The
persuasive tactics discussed in this chapter tend to have more impact if readers can apply them
credibility, and the unethical use of credibility. Explain the role that pathos (psychological
needs) plays in a persuasive speech, discuss fear appeals, and the unethical use of emotional
appeals. Also discuss ways to use persuasive theory when speaking persuasively.
Chapter Outline
I. There are many definitions and approaches to persuasion.
C. The speech to stimulate or intensify social cohesion goes beyond agreement and
action and seeks to stimulate or motivate the audience.
D. The type of persuasive speech depends on the assignment, the topic, and the
speaker’s preferences.
III. When preparing a persuasive speech start by determining your topic and position
statement.
A. Once you settle on a topic, you need to adapt it for each particular audience.
Audience analysis is more important for persuasive speeches than for other types of
speeches.
2. Select a controversial topic.
3. A topic is selected based on the speaker’s emotional commitment to a
position.
4. Whenever possible, select a topic you already know about.
B. The position statement is a simple sentence that states the speaker’s exact stand
on an issue.
1. A statement of fact establishes whether something is or is not true,
where there debate about its truth.
2. A statement of value deals with a judgment of worth, whether something
is or is not good.
3. A statement of policy advocates that something should or should not be
done.
4. Scope questions look at whether the problem is great enough to make it
a social issue.
IV. To be effective, you must support your position with quality arguments and reasoning.
Reasoning is a way of thinking about and analyzing conclusions through the use
of logic and evidence.
V. According to the Toulmin Model, an argument has three basic components.
A. The claim is a position statement or the conclusion the speaker hopes the
audience will reach.
B. The evidence supports the claim with materials such as examples, statistics, and
expert opinion.
C. The warrant justifies the evidence and shows how it supports the claim. Most
warrants also need backing.
VI. There are several types of reasoning you can use to organize evidence into logical
arguments.
A. Deductive reasoning proceeds from a general conclusion to specific
supporting cases.
B. Inductive reasoning proceeds from specific supporting cases to a general
conclusion.
C. Analogical reasoning explains and clarifies.
1. Analogical reasoning compares something well known to
something less well known.
2. A figurative analogy involves similarities based on imaginary
comparisons.
3. A literal analogy involves similarities based on comparing actual
objects or events.
D. Causal reasoning is used for proof, and may be tested by asking several
questions.
1. Do the events occur together consistently?
2. Does the cause consistently precede the effect?
3. Is the cause itself sufficient to produce the effect?
4. Might some other factor cause the effect?
VII. Fallacious reasoning is false or faulty logic.
A. The ad hominem fallacy is an unwarranted personal attack on the person
making an argument.
B. The ad populum fallacy argues that mass agreement or popularity makes
a position correct.
C. The appeal to ignorance (ad ignoratium) claims that if no one can prove
a point false, that point must be true.
D. Begging the question assumes that an argument is already proven in
order to avoid presenting supporting evidence.
E. Hasty generalization involves reaching conclusions based on insufficient
examples.
F. Post hoc reasoning assumes that two events in sequence have a causal
relationship.
G. The slippery slope fallacy asserts that one event will lead to another,
generating a sequence that is an irreversible trend.
VIII. Aristotle advised that there are three means of persuasion and that all three must relate to
the audience.
A. Ethos refers to the ethics or character of the speaker; the audience believes in and
is persuaded more by the “good man”.
B. Pathos refers to the emotional needs of the audience.
C. Logos refers to the logical proof used to support arguments.
IX. Speaker credibility (ethos) contributes to persuasion.
A. A credible speaker is someone listeners find believable and worthy of their
confidence.
B. Credibility influences persuasion in several ways.
1. Listeners uninvolved with the topic are more persuaded by speaker
expertise, while more involved listeners are more concerned with arguments and evidence.
2. Perceived similarity between the speaker and the audience can enhance
persuasion by making the speaker seem more trustworthy.
C. Four elements determine a speaker’s credibility.
1. Trustworthiness is the most important element of speaker credibility.
2. Perceptions of competency and the degree of knowledge or expertise a
speaker has on a subject are affected by non-fluencies such as poor articulation and verbal
stumbling.
3. The dynamic speaker is forceful and enthusiastic, with lots of vocal
variety.
4. Dynamism can enhance perceptions of credibility and trustworthiness.
5. The objective speaker is impartial and open-minded.
X. Evidence and logic (logos) contribute to persuasion.
A. Evidence is factual statements and opinions originating from a source that is not
the speaker.
B. Logic (or logos) is the connection of pieces of evidence in an orderly sequence.
C. Several research findings describe limited role of evidence and logic in
persuasion.
1. Listeners often cannot distinguish between logic and illogic or determine
the quality of evidence.
2. Logical-sounding words and phrases can convince audiences that a
presentation is logical even if it is not.
3. Evidence improves the credibility of most speakers.
4. Generally it is more effective to cite the source and qualifications after
the evidence is presented.
5. Personal examples and experiences tend to be more persuasive for a
longer time than statistics.
6. Audiences are more easily persuaded when the arguments presented are
novel and new.
D. There are four main methods to present evidence.
1. Speakers can make the assertion, present the evidence, then cite the
source (Method 1).
2. Speakers can make the assertion and present the evidence without a
source (Method 2).
3. Speakers can make the assertion, present the evidence, cite the source,
and give the qualifications of the source (Method 3).
4. Speakers can make the assertion and add first-hand experience (Method
4).
5. Selecting the method that is best for your presentation depends upon the
audience.
a.) When speaking to an audience that does not know you well,
Methods 3 and 4 are best for presenting evidence.
b.) When speaking to an audience that knows you well, Method 2
and Method 4 are effective.
E. Speakers need to decide whether or not to present one side or both sides of an
issue.
1. Present only one side when:
a.) Audiences already agree with your position.
b.) Audiences know nothing about the topic.
c.) You want the audience to take immediate action.
d.) There is little chance that the audience will hear the other side
from another speaker or news media.
2. Present both sides when:
a.) Listeners are fairly well informed about the topic.
b.) Listeners agree but do not know very much about the topic.
c.) Listeners disagree with your proposal.
d.) You do not want listeners to act immediately,
e.) The audience will hear the other side elsewhere, so you need to
anticipate those arguments.
3. William McGuire’s inoculation theory holds that presenting weakened
versions of opposing arguments plus refutation of them makes audiences
more resistant to opposing viewpoints.
4. When in doubt, present both sides.
a.) Show the weaknesses of objections.
b.) Show how valid objections are offset by advantages of your
position.
XI. Appealing to the psychological needs (pathos) of listeners contributes to persuasion.
A. Logic alone cannot persuade; the arguments must be personalized to the
audience at hand.
B. Create audience involvement during your presentation to help them see a
connection between your position and their needs.
1. Arrive early and chat with people as they come in.
2. Ask a few questions during the speech with the audience applauding or
giving a show of hands for the answers.
C. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs can identify the needs of an audience; each level
involves specific persuasive measures known as motive appeals.
1. Physiological needs are basic bodily comfort requirements such as food,
shelter, and clothing.
3. Social needs include the feelings of love and belonging.
4. Esteem needs relate to the audience’s feelings of pride or
accomplishment.
5. Self-actualization needs encompass the desire to develop one’s potential.
D. Loss framing is effective in situations involving risk and uncertainty.
E. Fear appeals cause audiences to feel alarmed or threatened.
F. Successful fear appeals have three characteristics.
1. Consequences of not changing should be significant and relevant to the
audience.
2. The undesirable consequences must be perceived as likely to occur.
3. The audience must have a way to avoid or reduce the undesirable
consequences.
G. Emotional appeals should not replace sound reasoning and must be ethical.
1. Avoid fabricating or overstating similarities with the audience.
2. Avoid exaggerating information to generate an emotional response.
XII. Using persuasive theory in speaking.
A. The Elaboration Likelihood Model indicates which of two routes for processing
arguments audience members will likely use.
1. Central route will used by those who are motivated and have the ability
to process information.
2. Peripheral route will be used by those who are not motivated and are
unable to process information.
B. Social Judgment Theory explains how people evaluate messages based on
internal anchors or past experiences.
1. On any issue, each listener will view some messages or positions as
acceptable, some unacceptable, and others as merely tolerable.
2. The larger a person’s latitude of rejection, the more difficult they are to
persuade.
3. Persuasion is more likely to occur if you advocate and change that which
is only a small step outside the latitude of acceptance or
noncommitment.
XIII. There are several final preparation tips you can use to develop an effective persuasive
speech.
A. Research arguments for and against your position.
B. Research answers to major audience objections.
C. Research additional benefits.
D. Choose the best persuasive organizational pattern.
1. For speeches to convince use:
a.) The claim or cause-effect-solution pattern when stating your
Classroom Exercises
Online Activity
The online persuasive speech is usually the culmination of a semester’s activities. By this time,
the students have given at least two presentations and should be aware of the essentials of good
public speaking. Before this presentation, they should have selected a topic, polled the audience,
reviewed the persuasive outline, and identified supporting materials.
If you would like to include one more activity for your online students, have them view one of
the presentations on americanrhetoric.com and ask them to identify the type of organizational
pattern that was used in the presentation.
Online Activity
Students should visit the Hamilton Essentials of Public Speaking Website and view the sample
student persuasive speeches. Students should determine if speeches are to convince or to actuate.
They should also identify at least three supporting materials that are used in the speeches to
persuade the audience.
Active Critical Thinking Activity
To think further about logos, ask students to complete the following:
1. Select a sample persuasive speech from Chapter 12 or 13 or locate a persuasive
speech from americanrhetoric.com or Vital Speeches.
2. Identify two uses of logos and evaluate the effectiveness of each.
3. Identify any use of fallacious reasoning.
To think further about ethos, ask students to use the same persuasive speech they selected in the
previous question set and complete the following:
1. Identify at least three ways in which the speaker established credibility
and evaluate the effectiveness of each.
2. Identify any unethical use of credibility.
To think further about pathos, ask students to use the same persuasive speech they selected in the
previous question sets and complete the following:
1. Identify at least three motivational appeals used in the speech and the category of
needs each appeal related to; evaluate the effectiveness of each appeal.
2. Were any fear appeals used? If so, how effective were they?
To think further about persuasion and technology, ask students to complete the following:
To think further about persuasive theory, ask students to complete the following using the topic
they plan to use in their own persuasive speaking situation to come:
1. Relate the speech topic and main arguments to the Social Judgment Theory or the
Elaboration Likelihood Model. What does the theory you picked say about the
speech and its persuasiveness?
2. Share your answers with your instructor and get their feedback.
Active Critical Thinking Activity
To think further about persuasive speaking, ask students to complete the following:
1. Select a topic you think will make a good persuasive speech; it could be the
topic you plan to use in your own upcoming persuasive speaking situation.
2. Select an argument that could be made in the speech and list the claim, one piece
of evidence, and a warrant for the argument. Be prepared to share your
answers with a classmate and get their feedback.
3. Explain which type of persuasive speech you think will work best for this topic
and why.
4. Which two persuasive appeals do you think will be the most important for this
topic? Expain why you made the choices you did.
5. Write a position statement for the topic you selected, using either a statement of
fact, value, or policy; explain why you selected this approach.
6. Select a persuasive organization pattern from Chapter 7 and list your main points
to follow this pattern.
7. List at least two possible audience objections toward your position statement and
main points and suggest how you could answer these objections in the speech.
Cite one quality source that you could use to support your answer to at least
one objection.
To think further about evaluating speakers, ask students to complete one or more of the
following:
2. Practice evaluating by using the form in Figure 12.9 to critique Cedrick’s speech.
To critique his delivery, watch his video located under “Student Resources for
Chapter 12” at the Essentials of Public Speaking website. Total your points and
verify your evaluation with your instructor.
3. Video your next speech (or use a video of a previous speech) and critique it using
the form in Figure 12.9. Which part of your speech surprised you because it was
better than you expected; wich part of your speech needs the most work and what
do you plan to do to improve?
10.1 Identifying Persuasive Appeals*
Objectives: Students will (1) develop an awareness of various kinds of self-expression and an
ability to recognize them, and (2) improve their critical thinking skills.
Procedure: Show one or more video clips, each at least five minutes long, from persuasive
speeches. You may use well-known speeches, or you may choose to record current speeches
such as those on C-SPAN. Ask the students to identify as many of the persuasive appeals listed
in this chapter as they can. To help them organize their thoughts, you might divide the class
into groups, with one member responsible for correctly identifying each of the following types
of appeals:
1. Deductive and inductive reasoning
2. False reasoning
*Adapted from C-SPAN in the Classroom (online)
10.2 Counterpoint
For this exercise, students should be teamed in pairs. One class period before the exercise, ask
1. One team member makes a brief oral presentation focusing on the weaknesses of the
editorial. The speaker should use the focus and lead-in steps to offer a brief summary of
the editorial and orient the audience to the issue it discusses. The organized body and
support should discuss faulty reasoning, problems with supporting material, and other
flaws.
2. The second team member makes an oral presentation immediately after his or her
partner. The second speaker delivers a reply to the editorial, presenting an alternative
viewpoint. This presentation should take into account the criticisms offered in the first
speech and avoid making the same mistakes noticed in the original editorial.
10.3 Assessing Speaker Credibility
Ask the class to identify at least five different celebrities they have seen endorse a product or
service. (Example: the headache remedy advertisement endorsed by a soap opera actor who
intones, “I’m not a doctor, but I play one on TV. . .”) List the names of the celebrities and what
Variation: Complete the exercise as described, and then have the class provide specific answers
to the following questions:
1. For the low-credibility situations, what products or services would the celebrity gain
credibility endorsing? Why would the celebrity be more credible in these
circumstances?
2. For the high-credibility situations, what products or services would the celebrity lose
credibility endorsing? Why would the celebrity be less credible in these circumstances?
3. What sorts of audiences would disagree with your assessments of credibility? Why
would these audiences reach different conclusions?
10.4 Practicing Persuasive Appeals
Ask the class to imagine that they are selling all their belongings at a gigantic flea market.
Students should identify one specific thing they now own that they will sell (whether they want
to or not). The rest of the class is potential buyers. Each student makes a 2-4 minute oral
presentation attempting to get the audience to buy that item. In crafting the “sales pitch,”
students should employ ONE of the following strategies as the core of their presentation:
1. satisfaction of esteem needs
3. satisfaction of safety needs
5. speaker trustworthiness
7. inoculation theory
Variation 1: You can add some variety to this exercise by asking a second student to sell the
same item using a different appeal. Make sure that each appeal is adapted specifically to the
audience at hand.
10.5. Using Documentaries to Evaluate Logical Fallacies*
Choose a documentary you are familiar with which demonstrates some common logical
fallacies. Supersize Me with Morgan Spurlock accomplishes this, though others, especially
those that place interpretive control in the director’s hands, typically work well too, such as
any of Michael Moore’s documentaries. Review the documentary and locate scenes which
10.6 Informative vs. Persuasive Speaking
Although we have covered the differences between informative and persuasive speaking, that
distinction needs to be reinforced when discussing persuasion. You will sometimes encounter
students who, eager to secure the approval of their classmates, express reluctance to speak on
controversial topics. As a result, it is helpful to emphasize that persuasion entails advocacy
(which differs from liking or disliking the speaker or audience). This exercise reveals the
additional steps that must be taken to move from educating the audience to advocating a
position. Work with the class on converting a speech to inform to a speech to convince.
Exactly what changes need to be made? What additional tasks would the speaker need to
perform (in both preparation and delivery) if this were a persuasive speech?
10.7 Persuasion Log
To emphasize the importance of persuasion in everyday life, have students keep a log of their
communication activities for the day. The log should include a brief note of the exact
circumstances when any of the following situations occurs:
In reviewing the logs, students should classify persuasive efforts as attempts to convince or
actuate. Furthermore, they should consider what kinds of situations seem to call for persuasion.
For example, does persuasion emerge more frequently in certain types of environments or in
particular kinds of relationships?
10.8 Persuasion versus Coercion*
The difference between persuasion and coercion is important both conceptually and morally.
Which of the following situations qualify as persuasion? Coercion? Students should defend
their answers. Such justifications provide an opportunity to practice persuasive speaking.
6. A used car salesperson talks a customer into buying an automobile he cannot afford.
*Adapted from Roy M. Berko et al., Handbook of Instructional Options with Test Items
for: Communicating: A Social and Career Focus, 5th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1992), p.
159.
10.9 Polling the Audience
10.10 I Don’t Agree With That
During persuasive speeches, let the students know that one person will be given a chance to
10.11 Impromptu Persuasive Speeches
No matter where they’re going to school, many college students believe “there’s nothing to