1
Chapter 8
Leadership
After reading and studying this chapter, the student should
be able to:
Describe factors that affect the leadership style
used.
Discuss and explain two frequently used
leadership models.
Determine which leadership style is most
appropriate in different situations.
Contrast heroic supervisors with developmental
supervisors.
Contrast transformational leadership with
transactional leadership.
Discuss and explain the benefits and side effects of
adaptive leadership.
Discuss how to inspire self-confidence, develop
people, and increase productivity.
Explain why emotional intelligence is so important
for effective leadership.
Brief Outline
Leadership: What Is It All About?
Factors Affecting Leadership Style
Two Leadership Models
Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s
Leadership Continuum
Is One Leadership Style Best?
Developmental Leadership
Heroic Managers
Developmental Managers
Transformational and
Transactional Leadership
Transformational Leadership
Transactional Leadership
Adaptive Leadership
Servant Leadership
The Paradox of Servant Leadership
Characteristics of Servant
Leadership
Core Leadership Functions
Emotional Intelligence
The Influence of Emotional
Intelligence at Roadway Express—A
Trucking Company
Learning Objectives
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An Irreverent Attitude and Dirt Cheap Prices—A Successful Combination
Jimmy John’s Gourmet Sandwiches (JJ) was founded in 1983 by Jimmy John Liautaud. His philosophy was
simple: Be honest, good, fast, and affordable. Although Jimmy John began with used equipment, $200 a
month store rent, and could not afford to put ice in the drinks, the college kids loved the attitude and cheap
prices. JJ has become a major player in the sandwich industry with over 690 store locations. The bulk of the
company’s growth has been generated through franchising relationships.
I. Leadership: What Is It All About?
• Leadership is defined as the process of influencing individual and group activities toward goal
setting and goal achievement.
• Leadership is a reciprocal process involving the leader and follower(s).
o Formal leadership is officially sanctioned by an organization through delegation.
o Informal leadership is unofficial and accorded someone by organizational members.
A. Factors Affecting Leadership Style
• Three factors, or variables, which are interrelated have a major impact on the choice of leadership
style:
o Theory X or Theory Y management philosophy
o The followers’ readiness level
o The situation faced by the supervisor
1. Theory X or Theory Y Management Philosophy
• A supervisor’s management philosophy is determined by his or her assumptions about the
nature of people.
• Four critical factors interact to influence a supervisor’s view of the nature of people and
consequently shape his or her philosophy:
o The supervisor’s personality characteristics
o The supervisor’s family and early school environment
o The supervisor’s experience and training in the area of leadership
o The supervisor’s present work environment, including the type of work and the general
management system
• Douglas McGregor outlined two contrasting sets of assumptions about the nature of people
(concept of Theory X and Theory Y).
o A manager’s leadership style is influenced by the set of assumptions to which he or she
Preview
Lecture Outline
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• A leader’s choice of style is influenced by how his or her unit is progressing.
B. Two Leadership Models
• Of the many theories and theoretical models regarding leadership, two that are especially
applicable for supervisors are as follows:
o Robert Blake and Anne Adams McCanse’s well-known Leadership Grid®
o Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model
1. The Leadership Grid
• The Leadership Grid shows a leader has two concerns: production and people.
o Concern for Results is plotted on the horizontal axis of the grid, while “Concern for
People” is plotted on the vertical axis.
• If a supervisor is primarily concerned with production and shows little concern for people, he
or she is a 9,1 leader (9 in concern for production results and 1 in concern for people).
o The 9,1 leader is one who structures the work, delegates as little as possible, and usually
is an autocrat in getting work accomplished.
o This style is called authority compliance or task management.
• The supervisor who shows primary concern for people and little concern for production is a 1,9
leader.
o The 1,9 leader is supportive and somewhat permissive, emphasizing the need to keep
employees happy and satisfied.
o Leaders of this type tend to avoid pressure in getting the work done. This style is called
country club management.
• The 5,5 leader uses a middle of the road management style, placing emphasis on people and
on production.
• The 1,1 leader reflects the poorest of all styles, called impoverished management.
o Supervisors using this type of leadership have completely abdicated the leadership role.
o If any significant work is done, it is due to the initiative of people working for this
leader.
• The 9,9 leader believes that the heart of directing work lies in mutual understanding and
agreement about what organizational and unit objectives are and about the proper means of
attaining them.
o This type of leader has a high concern for both people and production and uses a
participative approach called team management to get the work done.
o Blake and associates strongly believe that the 9,9 style is the way to manage in
leadership situations.
2. Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
• Many people believe that there is no one best approach for every situation, but only a best
approach for a given situation.
• One of the most popular situational approaches is called the life-cycle theory of leadership.
CHAPTER NOTES Chapter 8
o It draws heavily on leadership research conducted at Ohio State University.
o The researchers concluded that many leadership behaviors fall into one of two areas—
task behaviors or relationship behaviors.
▪ Task behaviors involve clarifying the job; telling people what to do, how and
when to do it; providing follow-up; and taking corrective action.
▪ Relationship behaviors involve providing people with support and asking for
their opinions and ideas.
• The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Model shows the relationship between the
readiness of followers and the leadership style based on task and relationship behaviors of
leaders.
o The model consists of four labeled blocks, or quadrants, with a curved line running
through each quadrant.
▪ At the bottom of the model is a scale showing various ranges of readiness: high,
moderate, and low.
▪ The direction of the arrow on the readiness scale and the direction of the arrow on
the task behavior axis indicate that the higher the degree of readiness, the lower
the degree of task behavior required.
o The four quadrants in the model can be translated into four basic leadership styles:
▪ The structuring and telling style (S1: high task and low relationship) usually
works best with new or less-ready employees and individuals or groups whose
performance is slipping.
▪ The coaching and selling style (S2: high task and high relationship) is used with
individuals or groups with potential but haven’t completely mastered their
assignments.
▪ The participating and supporting style (S3: high relationship and low task) is best
used with ready individuals.
▪ The delegating and empowering style (S4: low relationship and low task) is one
of the more difficult styles for a supervisor to use even when individuals or groups
working under the supervisor are exceptionally ready and capable.
D. Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum
• The Continuum of Leadership Behaviors is the full range of leadership behavior in terms of the
relationship between a supervisor’s use of authority and employee’s freedom.
o It is especially useful when a supervisor is considering the degree to which employees
should be involved in decision making.
o The figure is a rectangular block representing a continuum of power that is divided by a
diagonal line into two distinct parts: use of authority by the supervisor and the area of
freedom for employees.
▪ The more authority the supervisor uses, the smaller the area of freedom for
employees.
• Tannenbaum and Schmidt maintain that each situation calling for a decision may require a
different approach.
• The path the leader chooses to follow should be based on a consideration of the following three
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types of forces:
o Forces in the leader—include the leader’s value system, confidence in employees,
leadership inclinations, and feelings of security or insecurity.
o Forces in the employees—include the employees’ need for independence and increased
responsibility, knowledge of the problem, attitude toward and interest in tackling the
problem, and expectations with respect to sharing in decision making.
o Forces in the situation—include the type of organization, the group’s effectiveness, the
pressure of time, and the nature of the problem itself.
• To be successful, the supervisor must accurately assess the appropriate behavior to use in a
given situation.
E. Is One Leadership Style Best?
• Research supports the thesis there is no shows that there is no single-best style for all situations.
o However, in most situations, the appropriate style is either coaching and selling or
participating and supporting.
• The long-run trend in U.S. industry is for supervisory managers to use more participative styles.
II. Developmental Leadership
• In many environments with educated personnel a contingency diagnosis calls more and more for an
approach known as developmental leadership as especially effective in managing groups.
• Developmental leadership is an approach that helps groups to evolve effectively and to achieve
highly supportive, open, creative, committed, and high-performing membership.
A. Heroic Managers
• Heroic managers are those with a great need for control or influence and want to run things.
o If they are dynamic and capable, they may do an effective job and produce good results,
particularly in the short run.
• Bradford and Cohen developed the following list of characteristics of heroic managers:
o The manager should know at all times what is going on in the department.
o The manager should have enough technical expertise to supervise subordinates.
o The manager should be able to solve any problem that arises or at least solve it before the
subordinate does.
o The manager should be the primary (if not the only) person responsible for how the
department is working.
• What is needed is an orientation focusing on building heroes rather than being a hero.
B. Developmental Managers
• Building heroes is the goal of developmental leaders.
• Bradford and Cohen’s model of the manager as a developer has three interrelated components:
o Building a shared responsibility team,
CHAPTER NOTES Chapter 8
o Continuously developing individual skills, and
o Determining and building a common department vision.
1. Building a Shared-Responsibility Team
• Instead of using meetings primarily for reporting and providing information to the group,
developmental leaders deal with real issues and actual problem solving.
2. Developing Individual Skills
• The second component of developmental leadership is closely interconnected with the first.
• One of the best opportunities for individual development is offered by an effective team
dealing with real issues.
o Developmental leaders encourage and seek out opportunities for their people to attend
various developmental courses of either a technical or a managerial nature and to
increase both knowledge and skills continually.
3. Shaping a Common Vision
• Many times, the final component, determining and building a common group vision, is the first
step in a manager’s movement toward developmental leadership.
o Bradford and Cohen refer to this as developing the work group’s overarching goal, that
is supportive of the mission and overall goals of the organization.
o They go on to say creating a tangible vision makes group members excited about where
they are going.
III. Transformational and Transactional Leadership
• Transformational leadership converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral
agents.
o Transformational leadership is one influential theory and way of looking at leadership that has
emerged in more recent years; it is closely related to team leadership.
o John MacGregor Burns and Bernard Bass were the first to identify and explore the differences
between transactional and transformational leadership.
o Transformational leadership is a paradigm shift to a more visionary and empowering
leadership style, particularly needed in a world of rapid and turbulent change.
• In transactional leadership, leaders identify desired performance standards and recognize what
types of rewards employees want from their work.
o Transactional leadership is a more traditional leadership approach and is similar to an
exchange process.
A. Transformational Leadership
• Bass and Burns’ research identified a number of past and current transformational leaders.
SUPERVISORY MANAGEMENT Instructor’s Manual
• According to a recent study, three factors were an integral part of being a transformational
leader—charismatic leadership, individualized consideration, and intellectual stimulation.
o The most important factor of transformational leadership is charismatic leadership.
▪ To receive a high score on this factor, a leader needs to instill pride, respect, and
esprit de corps and have a gift of focusing on what is important, as well as a true
sense of mission.
o The second factor, individualized consideration, indicates the leader uses delegated
assignments to provide learning and development and gives personal attention to
individuals.
o The third factor, intellectual stimulation, indicates that the leader has vision and presents
ideas that require rethinking of past methods of operation and allows for development of
new ways of thinking.
• Even more recently, Rafferty and Griffin tested and found a five-factor model best represents
transformational leadership: Vision, inspirational communication, supportive leadership,
intellectual stimulation, and personal recognition.
• Regardless of the different views, following are some common themes that exist among recent
research findings:
o It is important for the leader to instill pride, respect, and esprit de corps as well as focusing
on what is important and have true sense of mission.
o The leader delegates, supports, and empowers followers so that they may grow to reach
their full potential.
o The leader provides followers personal attention and support to nurture their development.
o A leader intellectually challenges followers to change past practices and paradigms and
stretch their limits to create and innovate.
o The leader must meaningfully communicate with followers to ensure the above four
practices are successful.
B. Transactional Leadership
• Transactional leaders identify desired performance standards and recognize what types of rewards
employees want from their work.
o They take actions that make receiving these rewards contingent upon achieving
performance standards.
• The transactional leader operates within the existing culture and employs traditional management
strategies to get the job done.
o Transactional leadership is based on the premise the leader can positively reward or
reinforce employees for their completion of the bargain.
1. Comparison of Transactional and Transformational Leadership
• Some people have the ability to grow and develop through levels of leadership and become
transformational leaders.
o For example, George McAleer, former Air Force pilot and now on the faculty of the
National Defense University’s Industrial College of the Armed Forces.
CHAPTER NOTES Chapter 8
• Transformational leadership is needed to achieve higher-order improvements, whereas
transactional leadership can result in lower-order improvements.
IV. Adaptive Leadership
• Adaptive leadership is about organizational members taking a hard look at the past to identify what
to hold on to, while deciding what needs to go.
o Employee participation in the change process is the key, because with adaptive problems,
many times the employees themselves are the source.
o One important issue to be aware of regarding this topic is that many times, adaptive leaders
who present tough questions become marginalized within the organization because their views
and opinions are not consistent with the current paradigm.
▪ Signals of this resistance include being let go or possibly promoted to a job with no
direct impact on an organization’s outcomes.
• Adaptive leaders can survive and provide meaningful guidance and direction within traditional
command and control environments, but it simply requires an understanding of oneself, the situation,
and the people one manages.
V. Servant Leadership
• Servant leadership defines success as giving and measures achievement by devotion to serving and
leading; winning becomes the creation of community through collaboration and team building.
A. The Paradox of Servant Leadership
• Bennett J. Sims, Bishop Emeritus of the Episcopal Diocese of Atlanta and president of the
Institute for Servant Leadership, provides a beautiful description of the nature of the paradox of
servant leadership:
o A servant is one who stands below and behind, while a leader’s position is above and
ahead.
▪ Logically, it is impossible to have these two positions in the make-up of one person.
▪ However, the paradox is that servant and leader combine to form an ideal blend of
toughness and tenderness.
B. Characteristics of Servant Leadership
• Robert K. Greenleaf, retired executive with AT&T, provides the following insights into servant
leadership:
o The servant leader wants to serve first and then lead.
o The servant leader focuses on meeting the needs of others and responding to problems first
by listening.
o Leaders who empathize with others provide a climate in which followers have the ability to
grow and develop.
• Larry Spears, CEO of the Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership, has identified ten
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characteristics of servant leadership.
o Listening
o Empathy
o Healing
o Persuasion
o Awareness
o Foresight
o Conceptualization
o Commitment to the growth of people
o Stewardship
o Building community
VI. Core Leadership Functions
• The best of the contemporary leadership studies and books support the value of working toward
developmental, transformational, adaptive, and servant leadership.
o There are seven core leadership functions that reinforce these macro-level approaches: valuing,
visioning, coaching, empowering, team building, promoting quality, and listening with
empathy.
▪ Valuing is having a good grasp of the organization’s values and being able to translate
these values into practice and elevate them to higher levels.
▪ Visioning is having a clear mental picture of a desired future for the organization or
organizational unit.
▪ Coaching is helping others develop the knowledge and skills needed for achieving the
vision.
▪ Empowering is enabling others to move toward the vision.
▪ Team building is developing a coalition of people who will commit themselves to
achieving the vision.
▪ Promoting quality is achieving a reputation for always meeting or exceeding customer
expectations.
▪ Listening and empathy is clarifying where others are coming from and acceptance of
others even with imperfections.
VII. Emotional Intelligence
• An important foundation of successful leaders is a concept called emotional intelligence.
• Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to an assortment of skills and characteristics that influence a
person’s ability to succeed as a leader.
o Daniel Goleman, a leading EI researcher, and others are proponents of what is referred to as a
mixed model of EI that includes the following dimensions:
▪ Self-awareness
▪ Self-regulation
▪ Motivation
▪ Empathy
CHAPTER NOTES Chapter 8
▪ Social skill
o EI not only pinpoints outstanding leaders, but also can be linked to strong performance.
• John Mayer and Peter Salovey offer an alternative EI perspective referred to as the four branch ability
model.
o Mayer and Salovey believe that EI is four distinct skill areas that can be developed in people to
enhance their abilities to perceive, process, and manage emotions and behaviors.
o Following are the four dimensions associated with the four-branch ability model:
▪ Perceiving emotion
▪ Using emotions to facilitate thought
▪ Understanding emotions
▪ Managing emotions
A. The Influence of Emotional Intelligence at Roadway Express—A Trucking Company
• Researchers have published results showing how to change the culture using emotional
intelligence.
• Following is the story of Roadway Express, as given by Ellen Van Oosten of Case Western
Reserve and Richard Boyatzis, an early collaborator with Daniel Goleman:
o Frank Sims, manager at Roadway Express, worried about damage problems with Specialty
Glassware’s shipments.
o Sims recalled a workshop on emotional intelligence and started working on ways to engage
people in solving the customer’s problems.
o The dock crew appreciated learning how their efforts fit into the big picture.
o Sims made his organization better by using emotional intelligence to create an atmosphere
in which people want to do their best.
o Roadway’s traditional structure was hierarchical and relied on command and control.
o Inspired by Sims’ experience, management began to look for ways to improve its financial
performance, developing a partnership with Case Western Reserve University and
designing a tailored program.
o The leadership program focuses on helping supervisors identify areas for behavioral change
and gives them opportunities to apply new habits on the job.
o The culture at Roadway changed dramatically, down to the drivers and mechanics.
• Roadway’s experience is a powerful example of how EI ignites excitement and inspires better
performances from everyone in an organization.
VIII. Chapter Review
The PowerPoint slides correlated with the Lecture Outline above are available on the Instructors CD-ROM
and on the product support website.
PowerPoint Slide 8-1 Chapter 8 Title
Visual Resources
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PowerPoint Slide 8-2 Learning Objectives
PowerPoint Slide 8-3 Learning Objectives (cont’d)
PowerPoint Slide 8-4 Leadership
PowerPoint Slide 8-5 Factors Affecting Choice of Leadership Style (Text Exhibit 8-1)
PowerPoint Slide 8-6 Theory X and Theory Y Management Philosophy
PowerPoint Slide 8-7 Theory X and Theory Y Management Philosophy (cont’d)
PowerPoint Slide 8-8 Theory X and Theory Y Management Philosophy (cont’d)
PowerPoint Slide 8-9 Followers’ Readiness Level and Situation Faced by the Supervisor
PowerPoint Slide 8-10 Leadership Grid
PowerPoint Slide 8-11 Leadership Grid (cont’d)
PowerPoint Slide 8-12 The Leadership Grid Figure (Text Exhibit 8-2)
PowerPoint Slide 8-13 Situational Leadership Model
PowerPoint Slide 8-14 The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership ® Model (Text Exhibit 8-3)
PowerPoint Slide 8-15 Situational Leadership Model
PowerPoint Slide 8-16 Continuum of Leadership Behavior (Text Exhibit 8-4)
PowerPoint Slide 8-17 Continuum of Leadership Behavior
PowerPoint Slide 8-18 Developmental Leadership
PowerPoint Slide 8-19 Heroic Managers Versus Developmental Managers
PowerPoint Slide 8-20 The Self-Fulfilling Consequences of Using the Heroic Management Approach
(Text Exhibit 8-5)
PowerPoint Slide 8-21 Transformational and Transactional Leadership
PowerPoint Slide 8-22 Contrasting Leadership Approaches (Text Exhibit 8-6)
PowerPoint Slide 8-23 Contrasting Leadership Approaches (Text Exhibit 8-6) (cont’d)
PowerPoint Slide 8-24 Adaptive Leadership
PowerPoint Slide 8-25 Servant Leadership
PowerPoint Slide 8-26 Characteristics of Servant Leadership (Text Exhibit 8-9)
PowerPoint Slide 8-27 Core Leadership Functions
PowerPoint Slide 8-28 Core Leadership Functions (cont’d)
PowerPoint Slide 8-29 Emotional Intelligence
PowerPoint Slide 8-30 Mayer and Salovey’s Four Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence (Text Exhibit
8-11)
1. What is meant by leadership?
2. Briefly discuss the major factors that may influence the choice of an individual’s leadership style.
Correlate these factors with different leadership styles.
CHAPTER NOTES Chapter 8
The following are three major factors that influence a supervisor’s choice of leadership style:
The management philosophy of the supervisor is basically determined by assumptions about the nature
of people. This philosophy is affected by the supervisor’s family, early schooling, experience, training
it.
The readiness level of followers is based on their drive and need for achievement and their experience,
Finally, the situation has a major influence on one’s leadership style. The nature of work and types of
3. Discuss how a supervisor would determine the readiness level of an employee.
There can be many answers to this question. One simple method would be to determine how long the
4. What leadership actions fall under the category of task behaviors, and what actions fall under the
category of relationship behaviors?
5. Do you agree or disagree with Blake and associates there is one best leadership style? Support your
position.
14
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6. Can you identify any transformational leaders from your own experience or reading? Please list the
reasons why you placed them in the category of transformational leader. If you cannot identify
someone, do you agree with the leaders identified in this chapter—R. David Thomas (founder of
Wendy’s), John F. Kennedy, Dr., Margaret Thatcher, Martin Luther King, Jr., Ronald Reagan, Oprah
Winfrey, Sam Walton (founder of Walmart), Anne Mulcahy, and Jack Welch (former CEO of General
Electric)? Why or why not?
7. Can you identify any adaptive leaders based on your experiences or other readings? Under what
circumstances will an adaptive leader be most effective? Why?
8. What traits or characteristics regarding servant leadership appeal to you the most?
9. Of the various leadership approaches discussed in the chapter, which one would you most prefer your
boss to use in working with you and your group? Explain your reasons.
10. How does transactional leadership differ from the telling and structuring style of Hersey and
Blanchard?
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Works with SCANS competencies: Information
If one statement is completely valid, the score would be 5. If the statements are less clear cut, the score can
be divided between the pair 1-4, 2-3, 3-2, or 4-1.
Skill Builder 8-2
Diagnosing and Selecting the Appropriate Leadership Style
Works with SCANS competencies: Information, Systems
In each of the following situations, students should choose the appropriate leadership style. Afterward,
instructor can give the best and worst answer for each situation.
2. The employee seems to be improving in performance and motivation. It appears she has a moderately
3. You have assigned the task to someone who clearly has the ability to perform the task, but seems to
4. In this question, one is dealing with a very competent and motivated group who are aware of the need
Skill Builder 8-3
Leadership Characteristics and Skill Assessment
Works with SCANS competencies: Information
This skill builder presents a self-assessment for students to determine their emotional intelligence at work.
1. How would you describe Cliff’s approach to developing Terance using Hersey and Blanchard’s
Situational Theory? What styles were evident in the case and what job readiness levels did Terance
exhibit? Do you think Cliff did a good job matching the right leadership style(s) with Terance’s job
Solutions to the Case
CHAPTER NOTES Chapter 8
maturity level(s)? Discuss.
2. Using Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory, what type leadership style did the yard supervisor
use with Terance? What style should he have used?
3. Put yourself in Cliff’s shoes, how do you handle the situation with Terance tomorrow morning? What
approach would you take? Why?
CASE 8-2
Kenny: An Effective Supervisor
1. How do you explain Kenny’s acceptance by so many other people and the respect they have for him?
2. Can all supervisors operate the way Kenny does and be effective? Explain your answer.
3. Given Kenny’s effectiveness in his present job, would you recommend promoting him into high levels
of management? Explain.
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This is a tough question. Not that Kenny is unqualified for higher management, because he most
4. Review the characteristics of transformational leadership (Exhibit 8-6), adaptive leadership, and
servant leadership (Exhibit 8-9). Which characteristics apply to Kenny?