Using Language
Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Explain why the effective use of language is vital to a public speaker.
2. Explain the differences between denotative and connotative meaning.
3. Explain the importance of using language accurately in public speeches.
4. Identify three methods public speakers can use to help ensure that their language
will be clear to listeners.
5. Explain how public speakers can use imagery and rhythm to help bring their ideas to
life.
6. Explain why public speakers need to use inclusive language and identify four ways
they can do so.
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Chapter Outline
I. Language is important.
A. Contrary to popular belief, language does not simply mirror reality.
B. Language helps create our sense of reality by giving meaning to events.
C. Words are the tools of a speaker’s craft.
II. Words have two kinds of meaning—denotative and connotative.
A. Denotative meaning is precise, literal, and objective.
B. Connotative meaning is more variable, figurative, and subjective.
C. Choosing words skillfully for their denotative and connotative meanings is a crucial
part of the speaker’s art.
III. Public speakers need to use language accurately.
A. Using language accurately is as vital to a speaker as using numbers accurately is to
an accountant.
B. Speakers who have serious aspirations should develop a systematic plan for
improving their vocabulary.
IV. Public speakers need to use language clearly.
A. Because listeners cannot turn to a dictionary or reread a speaker’s words to discover
their meaning, a speaker’s meaning must be immediately comprehensible.
B. One way to ensure that a speaker’s meaning is clear is to use familiar words.
C. A second way to ensure that a speaker’s meaning is clear is to use concrete words.
D. A third way to ensure that a speaker’s meaning is clear is to eliminate linguistic clutter.
V. Public speakers need to use language vividly.
A. Effective speakers use imagery to express their ideas vividly.
1. One way to generate imagery is to use concrete words.
2. A second way to generate imagery is through the use of simile.
3. A third way to generate imagery is through the use of metaphor.
B. Effective speakers use rhythm to enhance the vividness of their discourse.
1. Language has a rhythm created by the choice and arrangement of words.
2. There are four basic stylistic devices for enhancing the rhythm of a speech.
a. The first device is parallelism—the similar arrangement of a pair or series of
related words, phrases, or sentences.
b. The second device is repetition—repeating the same word or set of words at
the beginning or end of successive clauses or sentences.
174 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
c. The third device is alliteration—repeating the initial consonant sound in
close or adjoining words.
d. The fourth device is antithesis—juxtaposing contrasting ideas, usually in
parallel structure.
VI. Public speakers need to use language appropriately.
A. A speaker’s language should be appropriate to the occasion.
B. A speaker’s language should be appropriate to the audience.
C. A speaker’s language should be appropriate to the topic.
D. A speaker’s language should be appropriate to the speaker himself or herself.
VII. Public speakers are more effective when they use inclusive language.
A. Audiences today expect public speakers to use inclusive language that is respectful of
the different groups that make up American society.
B. There are four principles for inclusive language that have become so widespread that
no aspiring speaker can afford to ignore them.
1. The first principle is to avoid the generic “he.”
2. The second principle is to avoid the use of “man” when referring to both men and
women.
3. The third principle is to avoid stereotyping jobs and social roles by gender.
4. The fourth principle is to use names that groups use to identify themselves.
C. If speakers have questions about inclusive language, they should consult one of the
many guidebooks or up–to–date information on the Internet on this subject.
Exercises for Critical Thinking
(from text page 229)
1. Arrange each of the sequences below in order, from the most abstract word to the most con-
crete word.
a. housing complex, building, dining room, structure, apartment
(structure, building, housing complex, apartment, dining room)
b. Mona Lisa, art, painting, creative activity, portrait
(creative activity, art, painting, portrait, Mona Lisa)
c. automobile, vehicle, Ferrari, transportation, sports car
(transportation, vehicle, automobile, sports car, Ferrari)
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2. Rewrite each of the following sentences using clear, familiar words.
a. My employment objective is to attain a position of maximum financial reward.
(I want a job that pays well.)
b. All professors at this school are expected to achieve high standards of excellence in their
instructional duties.
(All professors here are expected to be good teachers.)
c. In the eventuality of a fire, it is imperative that all persons evacuate the building without
undue delay.
(In case of fire, get out of the building as quickly as possible.)
3. Each of the statements below uses one or more of the following stylistic devices: metaphor,
simile, parallelism, repetition, alliteration, antithesis. Identify the device (or devices) used in
each statement.
a. “We are a people in a quandary about the present. We are a people in search of our fu-
ture. We are a people in search of a national community.” (Barbara Jordan)
(repetition and parallelism)
b. “The vice presidency is the sand trap of American politics. It’s near the prize, and de-
signed to be limiting.” (Howard Fineman)
(metaphor)
c. “I want you to make history, not be history. I want your work to be remembered, not be
forgotten. I want you to power and steer the academic current, not be engulfed by it.”
(Ibram X. Kendi)
(antithesis and metaphor)
d. “I speak so those without a voice can be heard. Those who have fought for their rights:
Their right to live in peace. Their right to be treated with dignity. Their right to equality
of opportunity.” (Malala Yousafzai)
(repetition and parallelism)
Using Public Speaking in Your Career
(from text page 223)
Since graduating from college, you have developed a successful business that is located near the
campus. As part of its plan to involve more alumni and community members in college affairs,
the school has asked you to speak with new students during registration week for the fall term. In
the opening section of your speech, you want the audience to feel what you felt the first few days
you were on campus as a new student. The best strategy, you decide, is to present two or three
similes that complete the sentence “Beginning college is like. . . .” Write your similes.
176 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
Discussion: As with the other Using Public Speaking in Your Career scenarios throughout
the book, this one is designed to demonstrate how the skills of public speaking discussed
in the chapter apply to situations outside the classroom. An excellent way to use this sce-
nario is to divide the class into groups and give each group five minutes to come up with
several similes that complete the sentence, “Beginning college is like. . . .” Have one mem-
ber from each group present its similes to the class, and follow with a general discussion
about similes and other figures of speech.
Additional Exercises and Activities
1. Have students analyze Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream.” Text of the speech is widely
available online, and several videos of it are available on YouTube.com. In analyzing the speech,
students should identify the methods King uses to make his language clear, vivid, and appropri-
ate. They should also look at King’s use of familiar words, concrete words, imagery, and rhythm.
Discussion: Martin Luther King’s “I Have a Dream” is widely regarded as a masterpiece. It
was delivered August 28, 1963, to some 200,000 people who had come to Washington,
D.C., to participate in a peaceful demonstration to further the cause of equal rights for Af-
rican Americans. King spoke from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial, in the “symbolic
shadow” of Abraham Lincoln, and the crowd filled the vast area between the Memorial
and the Washington Monument. In addition, millions of Americans watched the speech on
television or listened to it on the radio.
Like most ceremonial addresses, “I Have a Dream” is relatively short. Although it took
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Introduction: The opening sentence constitutes the introduction of King’s speech. Such a
perfunctory introduction is unusual, but it was appropriate in King’s situation. The
audience had been waiting all afternoon to hear King speak. He did not need any
special devices to secure their attention or to build his credibility. The speech
might have been improved by an explicit preview statement, but the opening sen-
tence implies that King will focus on the meaning and importance of “the greatest
demonstration for freedom in the history of our nation.”
Body: There are four main sections in the body of the speech. The first addresses the na-
Conclusion: “I Have a Dream” is one of those speeches in which it is almost impossible to
identify a discrete conclusion. The speech builds steadily to the powerful closing
lines without a discernible shift from body to conclusion. The important question
when judging a speech is not “Does the speech have a conclusion?” but “Does the
speech conclude effectively?” In King’s case the answer to the latter question is
unequivocally yes.
Language: The most important feature of King’s language is his use of familiar, concrete
words. From beginning to end, he relies on words and phrases that create sharp,
vivid images—“flames of withering injustice,” “manacles of segregation and chains
of discrimination,” “sunlit path of racial justice,” “whirlwinds of revolt,” “heightening
Alleghenies of Pennsylvania.” This kind of language helps King make tangible the
abstract principles of liberty and equality.
178 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
This is best seen in the “dream” section. Dreams are visual phenomena, and
King’s “dream” is strikingly visual. Instead of talking in vague terms about the ideals
of freedom and justice, he makes those ideals concrete. Listening to him, we can
almost see the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave owners sitting
down together on the red hills of Georgia. We can feel the sweltering heat of Mis-
sissippi and the cool breezes of the oasis of freedom and justice it will become. We
can picture little black boys and black girls joining hands in Alabama with little
white boys and white girls. By making his “dream” so vivid, King communicates it
much more effectively than he could have through abstract language.
King’s speech is also notable for its heavy use of metaphor and simile. Most ob-
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2. Have students analyze “The Massachusetts 54th,” which appears on pages 452–454 of this
manual. Students should focus their analysis on how the speaker utilizes imagery, parallelism,
repetition, and other resources of language to enhance the impact of his ideas.
Discussion: “The Massachusetts 54th” is an excellent speech to study in conjunction with
3. In each of the following sentences, select the most appropriate word to complete the statement:
a. insisted, persisted, urged, persevered
I ____________________ her to treat her roommates more kindly.
Though he tried to prove his innocence, the district attorney ____________________ in
believing him guilty.
Despite the difficulty of the job, she ____________________ until she completed it.
He ____________________ that gun control legislation will do little to reduce crimes of
violence.
b. guess, prediction, estimate, forecast
I just read the Wall Street Journal’s ____________________ for the economy next year.
Will you turn on the television and get the weather ____________________ for tomorrow?
It’s always a good idea to get a written ____________________ before taking your car in
for repairs.
Chien doesn’t have the foggiest idea how many jelly beans are in the jar. He’s just mak-
ing a ____________________.
180 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
c. snap, tap, clap, slap
I knew someone was following me through the woods when I heard a twig
____________________ behind me.
The insistent ____________________ of the flag against the pole increased the drama of
the military funeral.
Sheila walked with so much spring in her step you could hear her feet
____________________ on the sidewalk.
All at once we heard a tremendous ____________________ of thunder.
Discussion: This is an enjoyable exercise that increases students’ awareness of the im-
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4. The following paragraph is filled with verbal clutter. Following the model on page 218 of the
textbook, edit the paragraph so as to eliminate the unnecessary words. You should be able to find
25 to 30 such words. If you don’t find that many, go back to the paragraph and edit it again.
Imagine the thought of burning up a priceless painting by Rembrandt just in order to
stay warm for ten minutes. Sounds really crazy, doesn’t it? But that is comparable to
just what is happening right now in the Amazon rain forest of Brazil. The president
of Brazil authorized a 14,000–mile network of highways to open up the vast area of
the rain forest to settlement. Unfortunately, the project has been nothing but a disaster
from the very beginning. Working in the hot, torrid, steamy jungle caused many fatal
deaths among the workers. Soon a whole lot of foreign businesses began to get them-
selves involved in the project. Today there is a very real danger that the rain forest
will be irrevocably destroyed completely and altogether.
Discussion: This exercise is especially helpful if you have students prepare a manuscript
182 CHAPTER–BY–CHAPTER GUIDE TO THE ART OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
5. The following paragraph is filled with verbal clutter. Following the model on page 218 of the
textbook, edit the paragraph so as to eliminate the unnecessary words. You should be able to find
30 to 35 such words. If you don’t find that many, go back to the paragraph and edit it again.
Rock music is such a big and important part of our lives today that it is extremely dif-
ficult to imagine a time when people lived without it. But there was once such a time.
The early 1950s were a time of bubble gum and soda pop—a pure and simple age.
Then a new kind of music started coming on the scene like a huge tidal wave on a
calm and quiet beach. A whole lot of young performers were appearing who were
revolutionizing the shape of American popular music. Bill Haley, Chuck Berry, Elvis
Presley, Fats Domino, Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis—the list is a long one that
goes on and on. But one rock and roll performer stands out above the rest as the most
original and innovative of them all. His name? Buddy Holly.
Discussion: Like the previous Additional Exercise/Activity, this works well as an in–class
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6. Have students compose one page of prose in which they use all the resources of language dis-
cussed in the textbook—imagery, simile, metaphor, antithesis, alliteration, etc.—to describe a
scene or to capture an emotion. Possible topics include:
the beach at sunset my happiest moment
walking in the forest my most fearful experience
a rainy night my favorite person
life in the city my most embarrassing moment
a boisterous party my worst experience
any special location my favorite childhood memory
Discussion: Encourage students to be as “literary” or “poetic” as they wish in this exer-